Temple Grandin, the world's most famous person with autism, is a "savant" who is known for her exceptional nonverbal intelligence, spatial reasoning, sharp visual acuity, and an uncanny gift for spelling and reading. Now, looking to understand how she is able to perform such amazing cognitive feats, a group of neuroscientists have taken a deeper look into Grandin's mind. And not surprisingly, they've discovered a brain that doesn't function like most people's.

The details of the study were made public at the recently concluded 2012 Society for Neuroscience's annual meeting in New Orleans. To conduct their research, the neuroscientists gave Grandin a series of psychological tests and scanned her brain using several imaging technologies.

Writing in SFARI, Virginia Hughes goes over the details of their presentation:

Grandin's brain volume is significantly larger than that of three neurotypical controls matched on age, sex and handedness. Some children with autism have abnormally large brains, though researchers are still working out how head and brain size changes across development.

Grandin's lateral ventricles, the chambers that hold cerebrospinal fluid, are skewed in size so that the left one is much larger than the right. "It's quite striking," Cooperrider says.

On both sides of her brain, Grandin has an abnormally large amygdala, a deep brain region that processes emotion. Her brain also shows differences in white matter, the bundles of nerve fibers that connect one region to another. The volume of white matter on the left side of her brain is higher than that in controls, the study found.

Using diffusion tensor imaging, the researchers traced white-matter connections in Grandin's brain. They found what the researchers call "enhanced" connections - defined by several measures including the fractional anisotropy, or integrity, of the fibers - in the left precuneus, a region involved in episodic memory and visuospatial processing.

Grandin also has enhanced white matter in the left inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, which connects the frontal and occipital lobes and might explain her keen visual abilities, the researchers say.

At the same time, however, the researchers also noticed some impairments, including "compromised" or weak connections. For example, she has a weak left inferior frontal gyrus, which includes Broca's area for language. And as Hughes notes, she also shows compromised connections in the right fusiform gyrus, a brain region involved in processing faces.

It would seem, therefore, that there's a tradeoff when it comes to being a savant, or someone with significant cognitive skills. But as Grandin would likely be the first person to admit, that doesn't necessarily imply a disadvantage or impairment — merely a neurological brain-type that's different.

Image via SFARI.

Two volunteer astronomers have confirmed the existence of a Neptune-like planet that has four suns, making it the first quadruple star system ever discovered. The planet, which is 5,000 light years away from Earth, closely orbits one pair of stars, which in turn forms a unit that revolves around a second pair at a distance of around 1,000 AU.

Illustration by Ron Miller.

The amateur astronomers took part in the Planet Hunters citizen science project, and were able to confirm the system with help from professionals in the U.K. and U.S.

Binary star systems are fairly common, but it's exceptionally rare for them to feature planets. As a result, astronomers have speculated that the odds of finding a planet in a quadruple system were extremely low. This new find, therefore, came as a complete surprise.

The discovery of the planet, which has been named PH1 after the Planet Hunters project, was made by Kian Jek of San Francisco and Robert Gagliano from Cottonwood, Arizona, who were using Planethunters.org, a website that utilizes human pattern recognition to identify planetary transits in data that's made available to the public (specifically, scans that are gathered by NASA's Kepler Space Telescope).

Looking at the data, the duo noticed faint dips in light caused by the planet passing in front of its parent stars. Following their immediate observation and announcement, a team of professional astronomers took over and confirmed the presence of a quadruple system using telescopes on Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

What the astronomers still don't understand, however, is how the gas giant, which is just slightly larger than Neptune, avoids being pulled apart by the intense gravitational forces exerted on it by the four nearby stars. And indeed, the planet's proximity to such large gravity wells place it in an incredibly complex gravitational environment — but it sits in an apparently stable orbit. Lead researcher Chris Lintott from the University of Oxford described it as "really confusing."

Regardless, PH1 has now been classified as the first confirmed planet to orbit an eclipsing binary in a hierarchical quadruple star system. And given that the most distant stars are only 1,000 AU away, the night sky must be nothing short of spectacular.

Details of the study can be found at arXiv.

Top image: Ron Miller; inset image Haven Giguere/Yale.

A private company backed by a controversial U.S. businessman has unilaterally conducted the world's most significant geoengineering project to date. Russ George, in conjunction with a First Nations village on Haida Gwaii, has dumped around 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the Pacific Ocean in a technique known as ocean fertilization. The experiment, which is in violation of two United Nations moratoria, has outraged environmental, legal, and civic groups.

The iron sulphate was dumped into the Pacific back in July, but recent satellite images are now confirming its effects — an artificial plankton bloom that's 10,000 square kilometers (6,214 square miles) in size. The intention of the project is for the plankton to absorb carbon dioxide and then sink to the bottom of the ocean. George is hoping to cash in on lucrative carbon credits.

To make the project happen, George convinced the local council of an indigenous village to establish the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation. He told them that the project would restore salmon populations, leading the First Nations people to channel more than $1m of its own money into the project.

Critics say it is a "blatant violation" of United Nations rules, and the matter is currently under investigation by Environment Canada. Experts contend that the project violates the UN's convention on biological diversity (CBD) and London convention on the dumping of wastes at sea, which both prohibit for-profit ocean fertilisation activities. According to the Guardian, the news publication that broke the story, George claims that the two moratoria are a "mythology" and do not apply to his project. The Guardian reports:

George is the former chief executive of Planktos Inc, whose previous failed efforts to conduct large-scale commercial dumps near the Galapagos and Canary Islands led to his vessels being barred from ports by the Spanish and Ecuadorean governments. The US Environmental Protection Agency warned him that flying a US flag for his Galapagos project would violate US laws, and his activities are credited in part to the passing of international moratoria at the United Nations limiting ocean fertilisation experiments

Scientists are debating whether iron fertilisation can lock carbon into the deep ocean over the long term, and have raised concerns that it can irreparably harm ocean ecosystems, produce toxic tides and lifeless waters, and worsen ocean acidification and global warming.

"It is difficult if not impossible to detect and describe important effects that we know might occur months or years later," said John Cullen , an oceanographer at Dalhousie University. "Some possible effects, such as deep-water oxygen depletion and alteration of distant food webs, should rule out ocean manipulation. History is full of examples of ecological manipulations that backfired."

George says his team of unidentified scientists has been monitoring the results of the biggest ever geoengineering experiment with equipment loaned from US agencies like NASA and the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration. He told the Guardian that it is the "most substantial ocean restoration project in history," and has collected a "greater density and depth of scientific data than ever before".

"We've gathered data targeting all the possible fears that have been raised [about ocean fertilisation]," George said. "And the news is good news, all around, for the planet."

UN officials will be meeting in Hyderabad, India, later this week to discuss the issue, including possible upgrades to enforcement policies.

And as Silvia Ribeiro of the watchdog ETC Group has noted, "If rogue geoengineer Russ George really has misled this indigenous community, and dumped iron into their waters, we hope to see swift legal response to his behavior and strong action taken to the heights of the Canadian and US governments." Read more.

Top image via NASA. Inset image: Yellow and brown colours show relatively high concentrations of chlorophyll in August 2012, after iron sulphate was dumped into the Pacific Ocean as part of the geoengineering scheme. Photograph: Giovanni/Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center/NASA.

Jupiter is not alone out there. Aside from its 62 moons, the massive gas giant is joined by two clumps of asteroids that orbit around the sun in the same orbit — what are called the Jovian Trojans. Not much is known about these ancient objects, but new data from NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) is finally starting to provide some answers.

The Jovian Trojans consist of two packs, one group that leads the way ahead of Jupiter's orbit, and one that trails behind. Prior to the new observations, NASA scientists were only able to see the groups in a kind of cloudy formation along with a few particularly large objects — but WISE is now allowing them to take a much closer look.

What we now know is that the lead pack is larger than the trailing one (a verification of previous surveys). We also know that both the leading and trailing groups consist of predominantly dark, reddish rocks with a matte, non-reflecting surface. NASA now believes that there are at least 1,750 objects in the packs — which was considerably more than they were expecting (about 40% more in the leading cloud alone).

This tells the scientists that these rocks aren't foreign to the Jovian system — they've likely been there since the early phases of the solar system's history when the giant planet was forming. And indeed, the rocks do not resemble the asteroids from the main belt between Mars and Jupiter, nor the Kuiper belt rocks located at the icer, outer regions near Pluto. More specifically, they are what are called D-type asteroids — celestial objects that are dark burgundy in color and comprise some of the oldest material known in the solar system.

"Jupiter and Saturn are in calm, stable orbits today, but in their past, they rumbled around and disrupted any asteroids that were in orbit with these planets," said WISE scientist Tommy Grav through NASA's official release, "Later, Jupiter re-captured the Trojan asteroids, but we don't know where they came from. Our results suggest they may have been captured locally. If so, that's exciting because it means these asteroids could be made of primordial material from this particular part of the solar system, something we don't know much about."

The first Trojan asteroid was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf in 1906, who confirmed the presence of a 220-mile-wide (350-kilometer-wide) object leading ahead of Jupiter. Named Achilles by Wolf, it would be the first of many asteroids found residing within Jupiter's orbit. Later surveys revealed the trailing pack, after which time they were dubbed the Trojans after the Greek legend.

And interestingly, other planets have Trojan asteroids, too. Astronomers have confirmed similar companion objects orbiting along with Mars, Neptune, and even Earth.

The WISE scientists have proposed that NASA plan for a future space mission to Jupiter to gather the data needed to better determine the asteroids' age and origins.

The results were presented on October 15 at the 44th annual meeting of the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society in Reno, Nev. Two studies detailing this research were accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal.

Top image via NASA/WISE. Inset image via obspm.fr.

Back in 2009 we told you about Predator X, a gigantic pliosaur whose fossilized remains were found in the Arctic. Now, after years of research, paleontologists have officially inducted the Jurassic-era aquatic beast into the science books. Its name is Pliosaurus funkei, a four-paddled apex predator that terrorized the seas over 147 million years ago. But as the researchers' investigation has revealed, the reptile was not as monstrous as initially reported. That said, it was still one of the most terrifying animals to ever appear on Earth.

The species is known from a partial skull, a complete flipper, and some assorted remains (including a section of vertebra) of two individuals that were excavated in 2008 in Svalbard by a Norwegian team led by Jørn Hurum. Pliosaurus funkei is only the fourth pliosaur species ever discovered.

Initial speculation hinted at a creature that defied imagination. It was thought that the animal had a head twice the size of a Tyrannosaur Rex, and four times its bite force (about 16 tonnes, or 35,000 lbs). Preliminary estimates put the size of the marine predator at 45 tonnes and 50 feet long, with each of its teeth measuring a foot in length.

All these initial measurements, however, were completely speculative and unsubstantiated.

But now, a subsequent investigation by paleontologists Espen Knutsen, Patrick Druckenmiller, and Jørn Hurum has revealed a marine reptile with more modest features — a bodily composition that more closely resembled those of other pliosaurs.

Here's what Pliosaurus funkei really looked like:

It featured a skull that was about 2.0 to 2.5 meters (6 to 8 feet) in length — not quite twice the size of a T Rex's skull (1.8 to 2.4 meters, or about 7 feet). It had more teeth than other Pliosaurs.

Best estimates of its body length place it anywhere from 10 to 13 meters (33 to 42 feet) long. The wide estimate is on account of incomplete fossil information (they just have a few piece of vertebrae); consequently, the paleontologists had to rely on figures derived from the remains of other pliosaurs.

In terms of its physical movements, analysis of bones from the four flippers indicate a marine reptile that cruised using just two fore-flippers, using the back pair for extra speed when pursuing and capturing prey. Interestingly, its limb proportions were quite different compared to other pliosaurs.

All this said, Pliosaurus funkei is still one of the largest pliosaurs ever discovered. But as Brian Switek of Wired has noted, the whole incident is a good example of how the media and some scientists are quick to get ahead of themselves before the required scientific due diligence has been completed:

Our view of Pliosaurus funkei is grossly incomplete. This oceanic hunter was big and terrifying, that's beyond question, but the pliosaur fossils are not quite so big or spectacular as the media feeding frenzy suggested. And despite early claims that Predator X had a bite force of over 15 tonnes per square inch, such figures are suspect when we don't even know what the pliosaur's complete skull looked like. No bite force analysis was included in the description. Furthermore, Knutsen and collaborators "urge caution in drawing far-reaching conclusions of pliosaur ecology and behaviour" based upon their study. Pliosaurus funkei must have been an apex predator with a devastating bite, but there's apparently little more than can be said with confidence. So much for "the most fearsome animal ever to swim in the oceans."

You can read the entire study at the Norwegian Journal of Geology.

Traditionally, wheels and stairs are a tragic combination, what's akin to mixing oil and water. Looking to overturn this convention, researchers at the Chiba Institute of Technology have developed a robotic wheelchair that can actually climb over steps.

In addition to this, the wheelchairbot can line its wheels up, and extend stabilizers to the left and right, enabling it to turn a circle. This makes it easy to reverse, even in a narrow space. From CIT:

We were particular about using wheels, because this kind of vehicle will mostly move on ordinary paved surfaces. The most efficient way of getting around on paved surfaces is to use wheels, like a car. So, this robot mainly uses wheels, but the wheels can become legs.

For now, we're presenting this system and form as a concept, and the motion has mostly been worked out. So, we're at the stage where we can show this robot to the world. In the next phase, we'll get a variety of people to try it, so we can fine-tune the user experience.

H/T Engadget.

One of the more frustrating aspects of treating patients who are in a vegetative or minimally conscious state is that we really have no idea just how conscious or unconscious they really are. As a consequence, medical practitioners are left guessing about how to best treat their patients, while family members struggle to understand how mentally engaged their loves ones might be. Thankfully, neuroscientists in Belgium are looking to change all this by developing a tool that can quantify conscious awareness.

Most patients in a minimally conscious state appear to be insensitive to their surroundings, often making jerky, reflexive movements. Appearances can be deceiving, however. What we don't know is how busy they might be on the inside.

Complicating the problem is the diversity of what's experienced by vegetative patients. In some cases, like the Terry Schiavo story from a few years back, it's very likely there is no awareness involved owing to severe cognitive impairment. But we can't always make this assumption.

Back in 2010, a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine showed that some patients in a vegetative state can respond to questions — responses that could only be measured with an fMRI. This remarkable revelation strongly indicated that we should not jump to conclusions about just how "brain dead" a person might appear to be.

And it's this exact problem that Melanie Boly, a postdoctoral fellow at Belgian National Fund for Research, is trying to correct. To that end, Boly, along with her colleagues, are working to develop a numerical measure of consciousness by pulsing the brain of vegetative patients with a brief electromagnetic wave, and then measuring any neural responses using electrodes applied to the scalp.

The early results are promising. Nature reports:

In six patients diagnosed as vegetative, the electromagnetic pulse elicited responses with complexity indices similar to those in sleeping or anaesthetized healthy subjects. Twelve minimally conscious patients showed slightly more complex responses. And two ‘locked-in' patients - people who are fully conscious but unable to move or communicate - showed complexity indices similar to healthy, awake subjects.

Once fully developed, doctors will be able to determine the cognitive complexity of the thought patterns in vegetative patients — and on a case-by-case basis.

And the implications are fairly substantial; caregivers will need to be respectful of the needs of fully or semi-conscious patients, while others who exhibit permanent and exceedingly low levels of consciousness (if any) may be officially declared as deceased.

Image: Andrea Danti/shutterstock.com.

There's a reason why optometrists say you should regularly replenish your contact lens solution and throw out your lenses after the expiry date. Last year, a young woman contracted an eye infection after using tap water to dilute her cleaning solution, and while wearing contact lenses that were two months past their expiry date. Subsequent analysis of her lens solution revealed an entire cornucopia of microorganisms that were spawned from a single amoeba, including a giant virus that was also infected with a virus — and a piece of DNA that was capable of infecting both of them.

Thankfully, the woman's condition, keratitis, was not serious and was easily treatable — but the subsequent analysis of her contaminated lens solution was quite revealing, if not disturbing.

The research, which was conducted by Bernard La Scola and Christelle Desnues, was initially concerned with an amoeba they found in the fluid. But after looking at the amoeba more carefully, the researchers discovered that it hosted two different microorganisms, including a giant virus that had never been seen before (what is now called the Lentille virus).

This Lentille virus, after infecting the amoeba, created a kind of "virus factory" where its genetic material was copied, thus spawning new viruses that were architected from its genetic script.

Now, if this wasn't surprising enough, the researchers also discovered that the Lentille virus was also infected with a virus, what's called a virophage. This virus-within-a-virus, named Sputnik 2, is only capable of reproducing in cells infected by other viruses (in this case, the infected amoeba). Amoebas that are infected with this virus continue to release virophage particles, which means the virus can continue to infect other amoebas on their own.

But there's still more: Both the giant Lentille virus and Sputnik 2 virophage contained even smaller parasites called transpovirons — highly mobile chunks of DNA that can relocate themselves into the genomes of viruses and tuck themselves away inside of virophages.

So, in summary, the researchers discovered that a transmissible DNA sequence managed to find its way into a virophage (and potentially the giant virus itself), which in turn latched onto a giant virus, which then infected an amoeba — an amoeba that eventually found its way into the eye of a 17-year old girl. You can read the entire study at PNAS.

Other sources: Discover, ArsTechnica.

Top image: Nixx Photography/Shutterstock.

If you're anything like me, you were quite annoyed earlier this week by all the claims that Felix Baumgartner had jumped from "near space" or even space itself (really, Telegraph?). Not to take away from his remarkable achievement — a freefall from 128,100 feet — fearless Felix was actually very, very far from space — as much as another 400,000 feet away if you count the lowest possible orbit. Looking to illustrate this, PopSci's Emily Elert has put together an infographic that visually demonstrates just how far Baumgartner really was from space.

Click here for a larger version.

In terms of how far space is from the surface of the Earth, The Federation Aeronautique Internationale has established the so-called Karman line at an altitude of 62 miles (327,360 feet), while NASA gives a generous (if not arbitrary) figure of 50 miles (264,00 feet) — still considerably higher than Baumgartner's jump point.

It's also worth noting that we're still quite a ways off from developing a space suit that can withstand the rigors of a complete re-entry from space. Designing a space suit that can protect its occupant from the tremendous heat will take some considerable technological know-how. And as Baumgartner's dizzying freefall clearly showed, even a drop from 128,100 feet is wrought with extreme danger.

Nightmares are one of the more loathsome aspects of the human condition. But there is a science behind these terrifying visions. And there are actually a few simple ways to keep the bad dreams away.

What are nightmares?

Nightmares are, of course, a kind of dream — a very nasty kind of dream.

Scientists who study dreams, what are called oneirologists, aren't entirely sure where dreams originate in the brain or if a single point can be isolated. What they've discovered, however, is that 75% of all dreams elicit negative emotions, or contain some kind of negative content (which is disappointingly high if you ask me). And every once in awhile that content gets a bit too dark and disturbing, jolting us awake with a pounding heart.

Indeed, nightmares are often described as a series of frightening images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that spontaneously (and uncontrollably) arise during sleep. People can experience any number of emotions during a bad dream, including sadness, depression, anger, guilt — and especially feelings of fear and anxiety.

Nightmares also tend to be very realistic, something that gives them that added bit of spice. They often feature disturbing imagery or themes that are so awful and terrifying that they force us awake. These feelings tend to linger, often making it hard to fall back asleep.

The content of nightmares varies widely from person to person, but there are some common themes. Perhaps the most archetypal nightmare is the one in which we're not able to run fast enough while we're being chased. Other common nightmares include falling, or revisiting a traumatic event. Children tend to have dreams in which they are chased by an animal or a fantasy figure.

A nightmare, like any other kind of dream, can last for a few minutes, or drag on for upwards of 20 minutes. And because REM periods get longer as the night progresses, most nightmares happen in the early morning.

Clinically speaking, virtually everyone experiences a nightmare from time to time, and they are considered completely normal. They are most common in children, and typically peak in frequency from age three to eight. Around 5 to 10% of adults have nightmares at least once a month or more.

It's worth noting that nightmares are different from night terrors, which tend to happen early in the night are are primarily experienced as feelings.

What causes them?

Most oneirologists theorize that dreams are epiphenomenon of consciousness and sleep, and that they don't serve any kind of purpose.

But some evolutionary psychologists, including Antti Revonsuo, believe that dreams — and especially nightmares — may actually serve an evolutionary purpose. His contention is that nightmares are a kind of "threat simulation" that prepares people for the perils of the real world — or at least the threats that were faced by our ancestors.

By priming dreamers with these negative experiences, Revonsuo says we're put into a kind of rehearsal for real life. People who dream, he argues, have that extra bit of experience — even if it is fictional. And interestingly, he argues that nightmares are as bad as they are in order to help us cope with more realistic adversity.

Evolutionary psychology aside, the most proximate cause of nightmares is not known. Neuroscientists still need to develop a more sophisticated model of consciousness and the dream-state to make this sort of determination. What they do know, however, is that high frequency nightmares tend to run in the family, which could indicate a possible genetic link.

Now, while we don't necessarily know the exact mechanics of why bad dreams happen, we do know that they can be triggered by emotional and physiological factors.

People who are ill or in a fever tend to experience nightmares more than usual, as do individuals who are experiencing withdrawal symptoms from drugs. Some antidepressants and blood pressure medications have been known to cause them as well.

And it seems the old adage is true: Going to bed soon after eating will heighten your chance of having a nightmare owing to an increase in metabolism — a signal to your brain to be more active.

Bad dreams can also be triggered by sleep disorders such as sleep apnea and restless leg syndrome.

There are also the stresses of daily life to consider. Nightmares tend to happen during transitional or tumultuous periods in our lives — like changing a job, moving, a pregnancy, or financial concerns. They can also be triggered by more serious events, such as the loss of a loved one, a serious accident, or witnessing a traumatic event.

And indeed, it is well established that people suffering from the effects of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mild head injuries have more nightmares than average. In fact, the heightened frequency of nightmares in these individuals can result in a chronic condition.

Not surprisingly, nightmares are often experienced by returning war veterans, first response workers (police, paramedics, and firefighters) and patients both preparing for and recovering from surgeries.

Are there any possible treatments?

For most people, nightmares don't happen frequently enough to pose a problem. We get them, and move on. But for some people, they happen often enough to pose a definite health risk — a condition that can result in depression and increased anxiety. It is recommended that people who suffer from chronic nightmares go see their doctor as there are a number of treatments available.

One technique that's increasingly being used is "imagery rehearsal treatment" where individuals are encouraged to alter the endings of their nightmares while they're awake. It's a form of cognitive therapy in which people can create an alternative, less distressing outcome to their dreams. Follow-up studies have shown that these kinds of therapies are effective, with upwards of 70% of people claiming to have experienced benefits (including people with PTSD and insomnia).

Similarly, chronic bad dreamers are told to write down the details of their nightmare, or to draw or paint them. They're also encouraged to talk in fantasy to the characters of their dreams. And in all cases, they are told to imagine a more pleasant ending.

Failing that, there are also pharmaceuticals that can help. The most effective drug is called prazosin, which is used extensively to help patients with PTSD. The drug is also typically used to treat high blood pressure, anxiety, and panic disorders.

And lastly, there are some simple (and commonsense) things you can do to stave of nightmares, including relaxation techniques (like yoga, meditation, and breathing exercises), physical exercise, and ensuring that your bedroom is a relaxed and stress-free environment. It's also recommended that no food, alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine be taken before bed.

Pleasant dreams, everyone!

Other sources: International Association for the Study of Dreams, American Sleep Association, National Center for PTSD, Medline Plus.

Top image: CREATISTA/Shutterstock. Inset image: "The Nightmare" by Henry Fuseli, 1781.

Scientists at the Kepler Space Observatory have discovered a "super-compact solar system" in which five planets are orbiting around their parent star at a distance at least 12 times closer than the Earth's distance to the sun. They're calling it the most crowded planetary system yet discovered.

As reported in Space, the star in question is called KOI-500. It's 1,100 light years away and is about three-quarters the size of our own sun (though it has roughly the same mass). But what makes this star system particularly unique is that it hosts five planets that range in size from 1.3 to 2.6 times the size of Earth — and they all inhabit a tight area of space that is 150 times smaller in area than Earth's orbit.

These planets are so close to their parent star that their annual orbits are only 1.0, 3.1, 4.6, 7.1, and 9.5 days long. And they're so close to each other that their gravity is pulling and pushing on each planet's orbit. Yet somehow the whole structure remains stable.

And what's really cool about all of this is that the outer four planets follow a synchronized orbit that has never been seen before, what's being called a four-body resonance: Every 191 days these four planets return to an identical orientation.

The researchers, a team led by Darin Ragozzine, detailed their findings yesterday (Oct. 15) at the annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences in Reno, Nevada.

Source: Space.

Top image: NASA/Tim Pyle. Inset image: Illustration by Karl Tate / Space.com.

Okay, so imagine this: It's about twenty years from now and a serious pandemic hits. You're rightly terrified of leaving your house for fear of contracting the virus — but you know full well that you can't stay home forever. That's when you hit the internet and boot up your 3-D bio-printer. After downloading the recently coded vaccine from the Center for Disease Control website, you print it out and give yourself an injection. Crisis averted.

This remarkable idea was recently presented by geneticist Craig Venter at the inaugural Wired Health Conference in New York City. He calls it a digital biological converter, or "teleporter." Talking to the audience, he described it as "a 3-D printer for DNA, a 3-D printer for life."

As always, Venter is serious when he talks about this stuff. His team is already working through various scenarios in which they have less than 24 hours to make a new vaccine with this tool.

Venter claims to have come up with the idea when talking to the mayor of Mexico City during the H1N1 outbreak in 2009. At the time, authorities flatly refused to allow samples of the virus to be transported out of the city for fear of further infection. But the restriction prevented scientists from studying it and developing a countermeasure. Venter imagines the day when a virus like H1N1 can be quickly digitized and emailed to research labs for immediate analysis — something that would dramatically decrease the time it would take to build a vaccine.

Assuming that all the regulation hurdles can be overcome, Venter concedes that the 3-D printer will have to be remarkable accurate. Any small deviation from the correct script could result in a printed protein that won't work as intended.

Hopefully, we'll have time to figure this out before the next pandemic hits.

Source: Wired.

Photo: Photo: Christopher Farber/Wired.

One of the more frustrating aspects of this current election season is the disturbing willingness of both presidential candidates to conveniently set aside meaningful and timely discussions of science.

And it's not as if there isn't a lot to talk about: there's climate change, a public health crisis, a withering economy that could use a science-inspired boost, and a public eager to see a coherent vision for America's future in space.

But it hasn't always been this way. In honor of previous executives who were either scientifically-minded or simply happy to serve as cheerleaders, here are 10 of the most science-friendly presidents in U.S. history.

Top image: John F. Kennedy, Alien Hunter by Jason Heuser.

1. Thomas Jefferson

It's hard to imagine a U.S. president like this today: Thomas Jefferson was an Enlightenment era polymath who spoke five languages and had a keen interest in science (especially archaeology), engineering (he invented a clock that was powered by the Earth's gravitational pull on cannonballs), architecture (he designed his own mansion, Monticello), and philosophy (he was was President of the American Philosophical Society). He also founded the University of Virginia and sponsored the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the west.

2. John Quincy Adams

Known as a pre-Civil War era reformer, John Quincy Adams was responsible for modernizing the American economy and building an infrastructure to support it. To that end, he established a uniform system of weights and measures, improved the patent system, facilitated a thorough survey of the country's coasts, and was a very early advocate for science as a way to encourage the spirit of enterprise and invention in the United States. An avid astronomer, he established an astronomical observatory (what is now the U.S. Naval Observatory) and participated in the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution.

3. Abraham Lincoln

Though primarily remembered for the Emancipation Proclamation and the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln also managed to sign a bill that created the National Academy of Sciences. And disillusioned with the backwardness of U.S. farming practices, he enforced scientific techniques and insights onto the agricultural industry. Driven by Malthusian fears of overpopulation and unsustainability, Lincoln saw to it that farmers were educated at government expenses, and that they would be provided with latest intelligence on farming machinery (he even predicted "self-propelled" machines), fertilizers, soil chemistry, and crop management. He is also the only president to hold a patent for his invention of a method to lift boats off sandbars and shoals. And disturbed by the country's reliance on sperm whale oil, he encouraged the development of alternative fuel sources (read more about this episode of history here).

4. James Garfield

A total math nerd, James Garfield developed a trapezoid proof of the Pythagorean theorem, a finding that saw his work published in the New England Journal of Education (given the anti-intellectual streak that runs through much of US politics today, it may be a while before another published scientist gets elected to office). And following in Lincoln's footsteps, Garfield continued to promote the idea that agricultural science should be supported by the federal government.

5. Theodore Roosevelt

The exuberant and outspoken Theodore Roosevelt will forever be known for his work as a dedicated naturalist and conservationist. A Nobel Peace Prize winner, he was quoted as saying, "Conservation means development as much as it does protection. I recognize the right and duty of this generation to develop and use the natural resources of our land; but I do not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob, by wasteful use, the generations that come after us." Fascinated by geography and biology, Roosevelt was a published ornithologist and an avid outdoorsman. In 1891, he used the Forest Reserve Act to allocate 150 million acres of land to the public domain — an unprecedented move for a U.S. president. He also oversaw the creation of the U.S. Forest Service. After his presidency, he participated in the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition in the Amazon.

6. Franklin Roosevelt

Let's put it this way: While the Nazis were bathing in Himmlerian pseudoscience and obsessing over useless V2 rockets, Franklin Roosevelt took the hint from Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and Leo Szilard and put together a crack team that developed the world's first atomic bomb — a scientific megaproject that changed the course of World War II and history itself. But even prior to the war, Roosevelt had already made his mark on encouraging scientific progress and environmentalism by kickstarting work on watersheds, forest conservation, agriculture, and managing the ravaging effects of the Dust Bowl.

7. Harry Truman

Working closely with the preeminent scientist Vannevar Bush, Harry Truman increased federal funding for scientific research in the immediate post-war era. His intention was to foster innovation and a more vigorous economy, a stronger national defense, and improved healthcare. In 1950, he signed a bill into law that established the National Science Foundation.

8. John F. Kennedy

In his own words:

Those who came before us made certain that this country rode the first waves of the industrial revolutions, the first waves of modern invention, and the first wave of nuclear power, and this generation does not intend to founder in the backwash of the coming age of space. We mean to be a part of it—we mean to lead it. For the eyes of the world now look into space, to the moon and to the planets beyond, and we have vowed that we shall not see it governed by a hostile flag of conquest, but by a banner of freedom and peace. We have vowed that we shall not see space filled with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding...

We choose to go to the moon. We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too.

9. Jimmy Carter

Despite his Baptist background, Jimmy Carter was fascinated by science. He had a bachelor of science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy and was trained as an engineer. Looking to change NASA's megaproject mentality, Carter stated upon his presidency that, "Our space policy will become more evolutionary rather than centering around a single, massive engineering feat. Pluralistic objectives and needs of our society will set the course for future space efforts." To that end, he supported the Space Shuttle project (including the construction of four space shuttles) and supported the development of the Hubble Space Telescope. In 1977, the twin Voyager spacecrafts carried the golden phonographs into space with a message written by the President himself. And as an inheritor of the 1970s energy crisis, he founded the U.S. Department of Energy, proposed a number of energy conservation schemes, and promoted research into alternative energy sources. Lastly, Carter had a friendship with the late evolutionary biologist Stephen J. Gould in which the two of them debated the finer details of Darwinian theory (he even wrote the postscript for Gould's book, Bully for Brontosaurus).

10. Ronald Reagan

Though hardly an intellectual, Ronald Reagan was a huge fan of science, particularly space exploration. He was a cheerleader for NASA and his views often ran in conflict with those of his advisors. In addition to supporting the Space Shuttle program, Reagan approved the construction of a space station, stating that it would "permit quantum leaps in our research in science, communications, in metals, and in life saving medicines which could be manufactured only in space." And though controversial, it was his administration that launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (collequially known as "Star Wars") to develop a space-based system to protect the U.S. from nuclear attack. But as the Cold War melted in the late 1980s, Reagan seriously considered working with the Soviets on a collaborative space program. Though not a fan of environmentalism (he removed Jimmy Carter's solar panels from the White House), he did react quickly to ban ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons when that crisis hit. And given his support for space exploration, we'll just have to conveniently forget that he was advised by his Astrology-loving wife, along with advisors who claimed that ketchup was a vegetable and that trees cause pollution (which they kind of do in a twisted sort of way).

Sources: nps.gov, American Almanac, Center on Philanthropy, sciencemag, eoearth, NASA. Images: Jefferson, Adams, Teddy, FDR: Elias Goldensky (1868-1943), Lincoln, JFK, Carter, Reagan.

With all the hype surrounding electric cars and hydrogen-powered fuel-cells, it's easy to think hydrogen is the future of automobiles. But as people start developing and popularizing these enviro-friendly cars, some problems are becoming apparent. And meanwhile, there's a new kid on the block that is threatening to overturn our assumptions about electric cars — and its name is liquid nitrogen.

It turns out that hydrogen as a fuel source is not without its challenges. Hydrogen refueling stations are still few-and-far-between, and the factories and equipment needed for producing, distributing, and storing hydrogen is extremely expensive. And because hydrogen is the smallest molecule of all, it leaks through practically everything — forcing distributors to build special pipelines and storage tanks at extra cost.

But if a recent report in the Economist is right, there may be a viable alternative — a rather unassuming one that is extremely cheap and in relative abundance: liquid nitrogen.

Because liquid nitrogen is dense and capable of storing considerable amounts of energy per unit volume, cars should be able to run a fair distance on the stuff. And weight for weight, it also packs as much energy as lithium-ion batteries used in laptops, mobile phones, and electric cars. And in fact, its performance is predicted to be comparable to that of an electric car's.

And as the Economist notes, there's lots more to the benefits of liquid nitrogen:

The big difference is that a liquid-nitrogen car is likely to be considerably cheaper to build than an electric vehicle. For one thing, its engine does not have to cope with high temperatures-and could therefore be fabricated out of cheap alloys or even plastics.

For another, because it needs no bulky traction batteries, it would be lighter and cheaper still than an electric vehicle. At present, lithium-ion battery packs for electric vehicles cost between $500 and $600 a kilowatt-hour. The Nissan Leaf has 24 kilowatt-hours of capacity. At around $13,200, the batteries account for more than a third of the car's $35,200 basic price. A nitrogen car with comparable range and performance could therefore sell for little more than half the price of an electric car.

A third advantage is that liquid nitrogen is a by-product of the industrial process for making liquid oxygen. Because there is four times as much nitrogen as oxygen in air, there is inevitably a glut of the stuff-so much so, liquid nitrogen sells in America for a tenth of the price of milk.

Finally, a breakthrough in engine design has made liquid nitrogen an even more attractive alternative than the lithium-ion batteries used in electric cars. An invention made by an independent British engineer called Peter Dearman dispenses with the costly heat exchanger that is needed to vaporise the liquid nitrogen quickly. Instead, a small amount of water and anti-freeze (eg, methanol) is injected into the cylinder just as the liquid nitrogen is drawn in, causing it to boil and expand rapidly — thereby forcing the piston down inside the the cylinder. "Without that," says Mr Dearman, "you had to have a multi-stage engine, which is cumbersome, inefficient and expensive."

Cool! Literally. Just don't drink the stuff, okay?

Image: Victor Habbick/Shutterstock.com.

A few days ago we told you about the controversial and illegal geoengineering project that's already underway near Canada's Pacific coast. Some new details are emerging about the project — including insights which suggest that the Canadian government knew what was going on but did nothing to stop it.

Just to recap, a private company called the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation (HSRC), in conjunction with the controversial U.S. businessman Russ George, dumped 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the Pacific ocean to capture carbon dioxide and create a plankton bloom that would restore fish populations. While it's fair to suggest that the First Nations people were motivated by environmental concerns, George is likely looking to profit by selling carbon credits.

What makes this project particularly controversial is that ocean fertilization is in violation of two United Nations moratoria. Moreover, the HSRC and George acted unilaterally, using a technique that is scientifically unproven and potentially dangerous.

Transparent?

But according to John Disney, the president of the HSRC, there was nothing secret about the project, nor does he feel that they have violated any laws.

Speaking to the CBC, Disney said they had "carefully sprinkled" the dust onto the ocean in iron deficient areas. By doing so, they were hoping to bring the plankton biomass back to life because "everything was starving out there."

The HSRC claims that the project is a success and that the ocean has responded as expected. According to Disney, the salmon have moved back in, along with whales, dolphins, porpoises, and birds. And to set the record straight, he said that the HSRC went to Russ George, and not the other way around as the Guardian reported.

Moreover, he maintains that the HSRC was transparent about its intentions from the start, and that they were in touch with several international marine science organizations. Many of these groups, he says, supported the idea, who stated they were "waiting for someone to do this on a large scale." Disney also said that the latest effort was not the first, but the largest of over a dozen ocean seeding experiments to date.

Shockingly, Disney claims that the HSRC has been in touch with the United Nations. He says they approved their small-scale iron fertilization scheme, but on the condition that they proceed with a "precautionary approach." Consequently, he insists that they've done nothing illegal.

But given that the ocean fertilization is alleged to have affected an area 10,000 square kilometers (3,861 square miles) in size, it's hard to accept the claim that the recent project was "small-scale." Nor do their efforts appear "precautionary."

The Canadian Government knew

Disney also claims to have been in touch with Environment Canada, its National Research Council, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and the Canadian Revenue Agency — and that their plan has "been on the radar for years." And in fact, Disney is currently preparing a report for Environment Canada about their latest effort.

According to the Toronto Star, Environment Canada is now conducting an investigation.

Canada's Minister of the Environment, Peter Kent, told the Star that, "If this (experiment) happened, it would be in violation of Canada's Environment Protection Act." But when asked if Environment Canada knew about the geoengineering experiment but did nothing to stop it, Kent refused to comment.

If what Disney is saying is true, this could turn into a very large scandal for the Canadian government. Likewise, if the UN also knew, the scandal could get even worse. Not only is ocean fertilization illegal, it is also unproven.

A potentially dangerous experiment

Back in 2009, an op-ed in Nature by several researchers warned about possible negative outcomes and side effects from large-scale iron fertilization. They were concerned, for example, that dead plankton could pull key nutrients out of the ecosystem.

Biologist Victor Smetacek has stated that no large-scale fertilization should occur without further testing.

And according to Maite Maldonado, a biological oceanographer at the University of B.C. who specializes in the impact of trace minerals on ocean life, the project could actually result in the reverse of what it was intended to do. Specifically, she worries that the lack of oxygen could potentially create toxic, lifeless waters.

All this couldn't come at a worse time for Canada. Just yesterday the country was awarded the ignominious Dodo Award for ‘failing to evolve' and not taking the required actions needed to address biodiversity loss.

Top image: Tiny phytoplankton in the sunlit surface water west of Vancouver Island bloom when wind and surface ocean currents cause nutrient-rich deep water to rise to the surface. Via NASA Earth Observatory. Inset images NASA and here.

Earlier today, Japanese researchers unveiled the latest incarnation of HAL, the Hybrid Assistive Limb. What makes this version of the suit particularly unique is that it is equipped with a network of sensors that monitor the electric signals coming from the wearer's brain, allowing them to seamlessly control the suit's movements. And because of its radioactive shielding, it's hoped that the suit will eventually be used by workers who are dismantling the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant.

According to Cyberdine, the company that developed HAL (yes, for real), the sensors will be used to activate the exoskeleton's limbs in synchronicity with the worker's movements.

And because the suit bears all the weight, the person wearing the suit won't feel any stress on their muscles. This is particularly pertinent for Japanese recovery workers, as they have to wear a 60 kg (132 lbs) tungsten vest while working in radiation zones — so this exoskeleton could certainly help.

In addition, the suit features internal fans that circulate the air, while monitors keep track of the wearer's heart rate and breathing for signs of fatigue.

But as Adam Westlake noted, the suit could present some unexpected hazards:

While the HAL suit seems like it would be an incredibly useful, effective way to help those working at Fukushima, there still seems to be a big risk in wearing it. What if the suit should malfunction, or its power source run out, making the limbs impossible to move, or incredibly heavy. Then the wearer could become trapped inside and unable to get out of a difficult situation.

[Japan Daily Press]

Bryan Chan has put together an extraordinary time-lapse video chronicling the agonizing twists and turns made by the Space Shuttle Endeavour as it made its 19 km (12 mile) journey through Los Angeles to the California Science Center. [LA Times]

Fitness trends come and go, but weight training in particular never seems to come into style. Part of the problem is that most people associate it with bodybuilding culture, and women in particular are reluctant to join the guys at the back of the gym.

But as the latest studies show, strength is a key factor in longevity and an extended healthy life. And in fact, resistance training may be the single most important thing you can add to your fitness regimen. Here's how getting stronger will make you harder to kill.

Top image: Annie Thorisdottir, winner of the 2011 and 2012 CrossFit Games, and considered the world's fittest female.

Gradual muscle decline

Simply put, we get physically weaker as we get older. Most people tend to reach the apex of their physical strength during their 20s and 30s, and it gradually declines from there. Exceptions to this rule exist, however, including genetic outliers and people who begin their resistance training later in life.

But once our strength starts to go, so too do other things. For most people, extreme declines in strength tend to happen in their 80s and 90s. Frailty as a condition results in lower levels of physical activity, decreased muscle strength, increased fatigue, slower walking speed, and unwanted weight loss. It's also associated with adverse health outcomes, an increased dependency on others, decreased mobility, disability, institutionalization — and even mortality. Weaker elderly people also tend to fall more frequently and have greater difficulty standing from sitting or lying positions.

Gerontologists place the blame on our defective mitochondria — the powerhouses of our cells. As we age, our mitochondria start to degrade, resulting in weaker cells and muscle fibres. We experience this as decreased levels of endurance, strength, and function.

Another fundamental problem of aging is our decreased production of telomerase. This is a crucial enzyme that maintains and repairs the little caps on the ends of our chromosomes. When we can't produce enough telomerase, our genetic integrity is compromised, and so too is cellular division. Chromosomal degradation is to is the human body what rust is to a car.

Our testosterone production also decreases as we get older (what is a natural anabolic steroid), resulting in a decrease in muscle and bone mass.

Muscular strength and longevity

As a consequence of all this, muscular weakness is indelibly tied to not just our quality of life, but our life expectancy as well. And the science proves this.

Two recent studies published in the British Medical Journal (here and here) revealed that muscular strength is a remarkably strong predictor of mortality — even after adjusting for cardiorespiratory fitness and other health factors.

This conclusion was reached after an analysis of over 30 studies that recorded physical attributes like bench press strength, grip strength, walking speed, chair rising speed, and standing balance. What the researchers found was that poor performance on any of the tests was associated with higher all-cause mortality — anywhere from a 1.67 to a threefold increase in the likelihood of earlier mortality (the study primarily looked at people over the age of 70 — though five looked at people under 60; but across all ages, poor physical performance was associated with increased mortality).

Now, here's the good news: To a non-trivial degree, and despite the inexorable effects of aging, physical strength is an attribute we can control. As the science is increasingly showing, resistance training can literally add years to your life — and the earlier you get to it, the better.

Resistance training and rejuvenation

Weight training (and functional exercise in general) offers innumerable positive effects on our physical, cognitive, and emotional well being. Taken as a whole, exercise has been shown to add between six and seven years to a life span — if not more.

As noted earlier, mitochondrial degradation is a primary culprit in dwindling muscle mass. But recent evidence indicates that exercise can slow down this effect. According to Mark Tarnopolsky, a professor of pediatrics and medicine at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, resistance training activates a muscle stem cell called a satellite cell. In a physiological process known as ‘gene shifting,' these new cells cause the mitochondria to rejuvenate. Tarnopolsky claims that after six months of twice weekly strength exercise training, the biochemical, physiological and genetic signature of older muscles are "turned back" by a factor of 15 to 20 years. That's significant — to say the least.

Studies involving middle-aged athletes indicate that high intensity exercise protects people at the chromosomal level as well. It appears that exercise stimulates the production of telomerase, what allows for the ongoing maintenance of genetic information and cellular integrity. Exercise also triggers the production of antioxidants, which boosts the health of the body in general.

And indeed, other studies are successfully linking athleticism to longevity. A recent analysis published in Deutsches Ärzteblatt International of more than 900,000 athletes (ranging in age from 20 to 79) showed that no significant age-related decline in performance appeared before the age of 55. And revealingly, even beyond that age the decline was surprisingly slow; in the 65 to 69 group, a quarter of the athletes performed above average among the 20 to 54 year-old group.

Essentially, exercise helps the body regenerate itself. This likely explains why older athletes are less susceptible to age-related illnesses than their sedentary counterparts. Moreover, ongoing exercise has been shown to preserve lean tissue, even during rapid and substantial weight loss. It also helps to maintain strength and mobility, which can significantly reduce risk of injury and stave off health problems that would otherwise linger.

Even more remarkable is how resistance training can stave off cognitive decline — what is arguably just as important as physical well being. In a study led by Teresa Liu-Ambrose of the University of British Columbia, women between the ages of 70 and 80 who were experiencing mild cognitive impairment were put through 60-minute classes two times per week for 26 weeks. They used a pressurized air system (for resistance) and free weights, and were told to perform various sets of exercises with variable loads. The results were remarkable: Lifting weights improved memory and staved off the effects of dementia. It also improved the seniors' attention span and ability to resolve conflicts.

Hit the weights, everyone

Now, as these studies indicate, not all exercise is equal. Resistance training (like lifting weights), in conjunction with high intensity workouts (like aerobics and running), are key. And it's never too late to start — and yes, ladies, this means you, too ("bulking up" is a myth; moreover, it's arguably more important for women to lift weights on account of a higher propensity for osteoporosis). Most gyms offer a weightlifting area, but even workouts at home involving dumbbells, kettlebells, or even functional body weight movements will work just as effectively (things like squats, push-ups, burpees, and pull-ups).

Seniors also need to lift weights. Actually, they really need to lift weights.

Studies show that elderly people still experience the benefits of gene shifting — even if they've never lifted weights before. It also results in an increased production of growth hormone and testosterone, and lower levels of dangerous cholesterol. And as already noted, it can stave off the awful effects of neurodegenerative disorders and depression.

Unfortunately, however, many doctors and healthcare workers are hesitant to make elderly people do anything too strenuous. Today, doctors and trainers are content to advise their elderly clients to simply walk or make circles with their arms in a swimming pool. This is not enough.

Clearly, it's only common sense that seniors should exercise within their limits — but it's also fair to say that it's okay to have them engage in workouts that are more intense than what convention normally dictates.

For seniors, strength training can be something as simple as doing curls with a 2 lbs weight, or getting up and down from a chair multiple times. It's good to get the heart rate up, and it's good to be sore the next day — and in fact, those are strong indicators that the workouts are hitting the right marks.

All this said, it's important to note that any exercise of this type should be done in consultation with a doctor and under the supervision of trained professionals.

Other sources: NYT (1), NYT (2), Globe & Mail.

Inset images: Joe Belanger/Jim David/Dmitriy Shironosov/shutterstock.

Plant and animal life had it rough 250 million years ago. As if to add insult to injury, the end-Permian mass extinction was quickly followed by yet another mass extinction, what's called the Smithian-Spathian extinction. New research suggests that the Earth got excruciatingly hot during this period, creating a veritable 'dead zone' in tropical areas, what forced the remaining animal life to head to the poles. And it lasted for nearly 5 million years.

According to research done by Yadong Sun and Paul Wignall of the University of Leeds, UK, this was hottest era on Earth since it cooled down from its initial molten formation. Their study has reset notions of just how hot our planet can get — a disturbing bit of insight that could reset current models of climate change on Earth.

The Smithian-Spathian extinction was time that characterized the shift from the Permian era to the Triassic, just before the emergence of the dinosaurs. By this point, the mysterious Permian Extinction had reduced the life on Earth to a select group of insects, plants, marine life (like fish, coral, sea lilies, and ichthyosaurs), and terrestrial animals (like insects and the reptilian tetrapod).

Sun and Wignall's research indicates that during this time, the heat at the tropical regions reached an astounding 50 to 60°C (122°F to 140°F) on land, while the waters at the surface reached 40°C (104°F). They were surprised to discover that the water could get that hot; previous estimates assumed that sea-surface temperatures could not surpass 30°C (86°F). Moreover, at 40°C, most marine life dies and photosynthesis stops.

A paleogeographic reconstruction of the Early Triassic world (Smithian substage) around 252 to 247 million years ago, showing a ‘dead zone' in the tropics. Marine reptiles (ichthyosaurs), terrestrial tetrapods and fish almost exclusively occurred in higher latitudes (>30 °N and >40 °S) with rare exceptions. Credit: Yadong Sun, University of Leeds.

And indeed, life had no choice but to react to this heat. It's suspected that marine life swam to the polar regions to keep cool. Similarly, terrestrial animals also headed to the extreme north and south. Back then, the mega-continent Pangea existed, making Antarctica/Australia and Siberia likely areas for re-habitation.

Meanwhile, the tropical regions would have been bizarre places to visit. These areas would have been very wet, but with very few plants growing — only shrubs and ferns. These ares would have been devoid of most terrestrial creatures. And in the waters, only shellfish would have stuck around.

What happened? Essentially, the superhot Earth was caused by a breakdown in global carbon cycling. Normally, plants help regulate temperature by absorbing CO2 and burning it as dead plant matter. But without plants, the CO2 levels rose unchecked, causing a spike in temperatures. Specifically, the researchers estimate that at least 12×10³ gigatons of isotopically depleted carbon as methane was injected into the atmosphere.

To reach this conclusion, the scientists collected data from over 15,000 conodonts (tiny teeth of eel-like fishes). By analyzing the isotopes of oxygen in these remnants, they were able to determine the temperature levels hundreds of millions of years ago. You can read the entire study at Science.

Top image via Chris Buter/Science Photo Library.

In what sounds more like alchemy than science, a small British company has figured out a way to create gasoline from air and water. To do so, engineers at Air Fuel Synthesis (AFS) produced five litres (1.3 gallons) of the fuel by extracting carbon dioxide from air, and hydrogen from water, which was then combined in a reactor with a catalyst to create methanol. This methanol was then converted into gasoline.

The entire chemical process to create this synthetic hydrocarbon liquid took three months, and is part of a $1.6 million dollar project to create a sustainable and environmentally friendly fuel. And because renewable energy was used to power the process, the scientists say it may be possible to create carbon-neutral fuel en masse that can be used like regular gasoline.

And in fact, the company predicts that it will be able to build a larger, commercial-scale plant capable of producing a ton of gas a day (about 1,200 litres (317 gallons) per day). They're also hoping to produce green aviation fuel to make airline travel more carbon-neutral.

Conceptually, the process can be understood as a kind of combustion in reverse. Essentially, it is not unlike what plants do — organisms that convert CO2 and water into energy-rich sugar molecules.

According to the Independent, the newspaper publication that broke the story, the company appears to be legit — as is their breakthrough:

Tim Fox, head of energy and the environment at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in London, said: "It sounds too good to be true, but it is true. They are doing it and I've been up there myself and seen it. The innovation is that they have made it happen as a process. It's a small pilot plant capturing air and extracting CO2 from it based on well known principles. It uses well-known and well-established components but what is exciting is that they have put the whole thing together and shown that it can work."

The prototype system is still too small-scale and inefficient to allow for a commercial-scale version, but further research and refinement could change the situation. And there's plenty of incentive to see it work — not just from the sale of a new synthetic fuel, but for environmental reasons as well. The company is hoping to extract CO2 from the atmosphere with carbon capture technologies. Until that time, however, it will have to rely on industrial sources of carbon dioxide.

Other sources: BBC and Reuters.

Image: ilker canikligil/shutterstock.com. Inset image via Independent.