It won't be because of a Maya prophesy, but humanity may actually meet its doom someday. There is no shortage of threats from the natural world, including asteroid impacts and the eruption of supervolcanoes. But who needs natural disasters when you've got human ingenuity? Here are the top nine ways humanity could eventually bring about its own destruction.

1. Nuclear armageddon

The Cold War may be over, but we're not out of the nuclear woods just quite yet. In fact, the worst is likely still to come. The most frightening aspect of nuclear weapons, aside from their awesome power, is that it's old technology. The Bomb was developed back in the 1940s for goodness sakes — and it's no small miracle that proliferation hasn't been worse. It'll only be a matter of time before nation states hell bent on becoming nuclear capable will do so (Iran and North Korea being the best current examples). Part of the problem is that we live in the information age where the blueprints for these things are readily available for anyone who wants them — including non-state actors.

The trick, however, is for these nuclear wannabes to get their hands on enriched uranium — easier said than done. But where there's a will there's a way. And with molecular assembling nanotechnology on the horizon, it may eventually be as easy as keying in the cook time on your microwave oven.

Now, all this said, it would take a considerable number of nuclear bombs to wipe out all of humanity. Models indicate that an exchange of 100 nuclear bombs at 15-kilotonnes each would instigate a nuclear winter. The initial blasts and ensuing radiation would result in the deaths of anywhere from three million to 16 million people depending on the targets. But the resulting nuclear winter would cause a decade-long famine that could result in billions of deaths — a condition from which human civilization might not be able to recover.

2. Global Ecophagy

Affectionately known as the "grey goo" scenario, this nightmarish possibility was first described by Eric Drexler in his seminal 1986 book, Engines of Creation. The basic idea is that, either by accident or deliberate intent, self-replicating nanobots could convert the entire planet into a useless pile of mush. Drexler wrote:

"Plants" with "leaves" no more efficient than today's solar cells could out-compete real plants, crowding the biosphere with an inedible foliage. Tough omnivorous "bacteria" could out-compete real bacteria: They could spread like blowing pollen, replicate swiftly, and reduce the biosphere to dust in a matter of days. Dangerous replicators could easily be too tough, small, and rapidly spreading to stop –- at least if we make no preparation. We have trouble enough controlling viruses and fruit flies.

Since the publication of Drexler's book, other experts have warned of similar scenarios involving advanced nanotech. Robert Freitas has speculated that the entire atmosphere could be wiped out in as little as 20 months. He also worries about gray plankton (they would release massive amounts of carbon into the atmosphere), gray dust (a worldwide blanket of airborne replicating dust or "aerovores" that would blot out all sunlight), and gray lichens (the destruction of land-based biology by a maliciously programmed noncarbon epilithic replicators).

To deal with these grim possibilities, Drexler and Freitas have proposed that we develop "active shields" and surveillance technologies. But it's generally agreed that weaponized nanotechnology will be able to tunnel through even the most seemingly impenetrable regions of ‘civilization space.'

3. Everybody uploads — but no one is conscious

It's all but guaranteed that we'll develop artificial general intelligence some day. But what's less certain is whether or not we'll ever be able to develop artificial consciousness. Neuroscientists and cognitive scientists still don't have a working theory to explain conscious awareness, so it's no sure thing that AI will develop in the ways we think. It's quite possible, for example, that consciousness is an emergent property of intricately configured matter — what some philosophers call panpsychism. If this is true, we may never be able to code for consciousness using a stream of ones and zeros. Consequently, consciousness uploads would be a form of suicide; the end result would be an apparent version of you, but there would be nobody home. Because it's so difficult for us to verify the presence of consciousness, uploading will have to be a leap of faith. As Ray Kurzweil prognosticated in The Age of Spiritual Machines, "The year is 2029. The machines will convince us that they are conscious, that they have their own agenda worthy of our respect. They'll embody human qualities, they'll claim to be human, and we'll believe them." But it could all be a big fat lie — a nightmare in which everyone on the planet has uploaded themselves into oblivion — resulting in billions of mindless automatons running around like bots in a video game.

Now to be fair, it's quite likely that not everyone on the planet will choose to upload (for a whole host of reasons), making this a low risk possibility — but it's interesting to think about nonetheless.

4. Robopocalypse

Also known as the Terminator scenario, this is the fear of a global-scale catastrophe in which either an advanced artificial intelligence or a malevolent human has instructed robots to turn against humanity. An excellent sci-fi treatment of this possibility was portrayed in Daniel Wilson's Robopocalypse, where a domineering machine intelligence decides that it's time to take over. Indeed, Wilson's scenario seems all the more plausible given the ongoing sophistication and ever-growing adaptability of robots. We humans are a fragile bunch — and we likely wouldn't stand a chance against these mechanized monsters. Hunter Killers and other single-purpose machines would relentlessly go about their extermination missions. Robotic locusts could wipe out all crops, resulting in mass starvation. They would be able to mass produce themselves, self-repair, engage in swarming behavior, and take on any size, shape, and form deemed necessarily to accomplish their mission. And of course, we won't be able to bargain or reason with these machines. They won't feel pity, or remorse, or fear. And they absolutely will not stop, ever, until we are dead.

5. Artificial superintelligence

Somewhat related to the robopocalypse, the day is coming when artificial intelligence will surpass human capacities. And then keep on going. This could all happen in a disturbingly short amount of time from a human perspective — what futurists refer to as a ‘hard takeoff' event. In such a scenario, a machine intelligence would rework our entire infrastructure to meet its needs. We would be completely unable to contain it. The SAI would take control of all the resources it requires, including the Internet, factories, defense systems, and robots. It would hit us like an explosion.

Take the infamous paperclip scenario, for example, where a hypothetical SAI is developed by a paperclip manufacturer. The machine's highest priority is to produce as many paperclips as possible. But because its goal was written without safeguards or other vital logic, the SAI would quickly go about converting the entire galaxy into paperclips - what would most certainly qualify as an apocalyptic outcome.

6. Particle accelerator accident

Though highly unlikely, there is the remote possibility that we could destroy the Earth while conducting a high-energy particle experiment. Back when the Large Hadron Collider was being constructed, some feared that it would produce a micro black hole or a strangelet that could convert the Earth to a shrunken mass of strange matter. Thankfully, the physics doesn't entirely support this possibility. Moreover, as Max Tegmark and Nick Bostrom have calculated, it probably only happens about once every billion years or so.

7. Deliberately engineered pandemic

Back in 2005, Ray Kurzweil and Bill Joy published an OpEd in the New York Times in which they warned that sensitive scientific information was being made available to the general public. They were writing in reaction to the United States Department of Health and Human Services' decision to publish the full genome of the 1918 influenza virus on the GenBank online database. "This is extremely foolish, they wrote. "The genome is essentially the design of a weapon of mass destruction. No responsible scientist would advocate publishing precise designs for an atomic bomb, and in two ways revealing the sequence for the flu virus is even more dangerous."

But their warnings have largely gone unheeded.

This past May, the journal Nature went ahead and published the details of an experiment describing how the avian flu can be modified into a human-contagious form. All the details are right here if you're interested. This is clearly an escalating concern. The information age has coincided with the biotech revolution — and it may only be a matter of time before someone (a country, a team, an individual) designs their own disease and unleashes it on our civilization. And what's even scarier is the possibility that the pathogen could be made highly virulent and 100 percent fatal.

8. Anthropogenic global warming

While this version of apocalypse would likely involve the onset of irrecoverable natural disasters, they would be of our doing. If carbon emissions continue to escalate at current rates, we may eventually create a positive feedback loop between the surface of the Earth and the carbon-drenched atmosphere above it. The effect would cause a rapid and progressively escalating rise in temperature that would eventually result in the extermination of all life on the planet and the evaporation of the oceans. This possibility is made all the more scarier as scientists grow increasingly concerned about massive amounts of stored carbon being released from the thawing tundra. In addition, ocean acidification could result in downstream ecological damage and mass extinctions that would likewise pose risks to humanity. Though many deny it, global warming is indeed an existential risk.

9. World War III

At the close of the Second World War, nearly 2.5% of the human population had perished. Of the 70 million people who were killed, about 20 million died from starvation. And disturbingly, civilians accounted for nearly 50 percent of all deaths — a stark indication that war isn't just for soldiers any more.

Given the incredible degree to which technology has advanced in the nearly seven decades since this war, it's reasonable to assume that the next global ‘conventional war' — i.e. one fought without nuclear weapons — would be near apocalyptic in scope. The degree of human suffering that could be unleashed would easily surpass anything that came before it, with combatants using many of the technologies already described in this list, including autonomous killing machines and weaponized nanotechnology. And in various acts of desperation (or sheer malevolence), some belligerent nations could choose to unleash chemical and biological agents that would result in countless deaths. And like WWII, food could be used as a weapon; agricultural yields could be brought to a grinding halt.

Thankfully, we're a far ways off from this possibly. Though not guaranteed, the global conflicts of the 20th century may have been an historical anomaly — one now greatly mitigated by the presence of nuclear arms.

Images: Top via Bethesda Game Studios, Nuclear bomb: Shutterstock/Elena Schweitzer, Grey Goo, Uploads: Shutterstock/Tonis Pan, Robopocalypse: Shutterstock/Oneo, machine mind: Shutterstock/agsandrew, Particle: Shutterstock/SSSCCC, Global Warming: Shutterstock/Barnaby Chambers, War: Shutterstock/Dmitrijs Bindemanis.

Earlier this spring, residents of a rural community in Louisiana's Assumption Parish noticed mysterious bubbles rising to the surface in some bayous. Shortly thereafter, a series of small earthquakes shook the area, prompting state officials to investigate. But in Early August, the ground suddenly opened up and gave way — swallowing up acres of swamp forest. In its place there is now a gaping sinkhole filled with water, underground brines, oil, and natural gas. But this was no natural disaster, say geologists. It was the consequence of mining activities conducted by the oil and gas service company, Texas Brine.

Located about 45 miles south of Baton rouge, the Bayou Corne Sinkhole has grown to eight acres in size. In the weeks following the collapse, officials determined that an unstable and collapsing salt cavern was responsible — what prompted Texas Brine to blame seismic activity on the sinkhole.

But as Mike Ludwig from Truthout reports, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has determined that it was the collapse of the cavern that caused the tremors felt in the neighborhood, and not the other way around — what was likely brought about by extensive mining.

Ludwig writes:

On August 3, Louisiana Gov. Bobby Jindal declared a statewide emergency, and local officials in Assumption ordered the mandatory evacuation of about 300 residents of more than 150 homes located about a half-mile from the sinkhole. Four months later, officials continue to tell residents that they do not know when they will be able to return home. A few have chosen to ignore the order and have stayed in their homes, but the neighborhood is now quiet and nearly vacant. Across the road from the residential community, a parking lot near a small boat launch ramp has been converted to a command post for state police and emergency responders.

"This place is no longer fit for human habitation, and will forever be," shouted one frustrated evacuee at a recent community meeting in Assumption.

The Bayou Corne sinkhole is an unprecedented environmental disaster. Geologists say they have never dealt with anything quite like it before, but the sinkhole has made few headlines beyond the local media. No news may be good news for Texas Brine, a Houston-based drilling and storage firm that for years milked an underground salt cavern on the edge of large salt formation deep below the sinkhole area. From oil and gas drilling, to making chloride and other chemicals needed for plastics and chemical processing, the salty brine produced by such wells is the lifeblood of the petrochemical industry.

Geologists and state officials now believe that Texas Brine's production cavern below Bayou Corne collapsed from the side and filled with rock, oil and gas from deposits around the salt formation. The pressure in the cavern was too great and caused a "frack out." Like Mother Nature's own version of the controversial oil and gas drilling technique known as "fracking," brine and other liquids were forced vertically out of the salt cavern, fracturing rock toward the surface and causing the ground to give way.

"In the oil field, you've heard of hydraulic fracturing; that's what they're using to develop gas and oil wells around the country ..."What is a frack-out is, is when you get the pressure too high and instead fracturing where you want, it fractures all the way to the surface," said Gary Hecox, a geologist with the Shaw Environmental Group, at a recent community meeting in Assumption Parish. Texas Brine brought in the Shaw group to help mitigate the sinkhole.

Cleanup work has started, but the company has failed to keep oil and other pollutants from contaminating nearby waterways. Earlier this month, Louisiana Commissioner of Conservation James Welsh fined Texas Brine $100,000 for failing to meet several deadlines for the cleanup effort.

And things appear to be going from bad to worse. A recent WWL Radio report indicated that the sinkhole may potentially impact larger areas, and that it may have to become a "sacrifice zone." In addition, hydrogen sulfide continues to escape from its depths.

You can read more about the Bayou Corne Sinkhole disaster at Truthout, the Louisiana Environmental Action Network, and the Examiner.

All images via Louisiana Environmental Action Network.

The National Intelligence Council has just released its much anticipated forecasting report, a 140-page document that outlines major trends and technological developments we should expect in the next 20 years. Among their many predictions, the NIC foresees the end of U.S. global dominance, the rising power of individuals against states, a growing middle class that will increasingly challenge governments, and ongoing shortages in water, food and energy. But they also envision a future in which humans have been significantly modified by their technologies — what will herald the dawn of the transhuman era.

This work brings to mind the National Science Foundation's groundbreaking 2003 report, Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance — a relatively early attempt to understand and predict how advanced biotechnologies would impact on the human experience. The NIC's new report, Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds, follows in the same tradition — namely one that doesn't ignore the potential for enhancement technologies.

In the new report, the NIC describes how implants, prosthetics, and powered exoskeletons will become regular fixtures of human life — what could result in substantial improvements to innate human capacities. By 2030, the authors predict, prosthetics should reach the point where they're just as good — or even better — than organic limbs. By this stage, the military will increasingly rely on exoskeletons to help soldiers carry heavy loads. Servicemen will also be adminstered psychostimulants to help them remain active for longer periods.

Many of these same technologies will also be used by the elderly, both as a way to maintain more youthful levels of strength and energy, and as a part of their life extension strategies.

Brain implants will also allow for advanced neural interface devices — what will bridge the gap between minds and machines. These technologies will allow for brain-controlled prosthetics, some of which may be able to provide "superhuman" abilities like enhanced strength, speed — and completely new functionality altogether.

Other mods will include retinal eye implants to enable night vision and other previously inaccessible light spectrums. Advanced neuropharmaceuticals will allow for vastly improved working memory, attention, and speed of thought.

"Augmented reality systems can provide enhanced experiences of real-world situations," the report notes, "Combined with advances in robotics, avatars could provide feedback in the form of sensors providing touch and smell as well as aural and visual information to the operator."

But as the report notes, many of these technologies will only be available to those who are able to afford them. The authors warn that it could result in a two-tiered society comprising enhanced and nonenhanced persons, a dynamic that would likely require government oversight and regulation.

Smartly, the report also cautions that these technologies will need to be secure. Developers will be increasingly challenged to prevent hackers from interfering with these devices.

Lastly, other technologies and scientific disciplines will have to keep pace to make much of this work. For example, longer-lasting batteries will improve the practicality of exoskeletons. Progress in the neurosciences will be critical for the development of future brain-machine interfaces. And advances in flexible biocompatible electronics will enable improved integration with cybernetic implants.

The entire report can be read here.

Image: Bruce Rolff/shutterstock.

Back in 1949, LIFE magazine's Gijon Mili paid Pablo Picasso a visit at his home in the South of France. Mili, who was a technical prodigy and lighting innovator, showed Picasso some of his photos of ice skaters with tiny lights attached to their skates and jumping in the dark. The preeminent artist was so taken by the images that he asked Mili to try an experiment. Their early attempts at "light drawings" were promising, leading the two to collaborate on several projects.

Over the course of the same year, Picasso posed for five sessions, projecting 30 drawings of centaurs, bulls, Greek profiles, and his signature.

LIFE magazine explains how the remarkable effect was achieved:

By leaving the shutters open, he caught the light streaks swirling through space."

This series of photographs, known ever since as Picasso's "light drawings," were made with a small electric light in a darkened room; in effect, the images vanished as soon as they were created - and yet they still live, six decades later, in Mili's playful, hypnotic images.

What's particularly incredible about these drawings is how Picasso-eque they look; these drawings, though etched in thin air, could very easily have passed for one of his canvas-based drawings.

Many of these images were put on display in early 1950 at the New York's Museum of Modern Art, but a number of the images shown here were only recently released by LIFE magazine.

All images via LIFE. H/t Design Blooms.

Wheat and grain-based foods are all around us. We love our bagels, pasta, bread, and breakfast cereals. For many, the thought of eliminating these staples from our diets seems wholly unreasonable, if not ludicrous. But a growing number of people are switching to wheat-free diets — and for very good reason. As science is increasingly showing, eating wheat increases the potential for a surprising number of health problems. Here's why you should probably stop eating wheat.

Without a doubt, wheat plays a major role in our diets. It supplies about 20% of the total food calories worldwide, and is a national staple in most countries.

But as is well known, some people, like those with celiac disease, need to stay away from it. The problem is that their small intestine is unable to properly digest gluten, a protein that's found in grains. But wheat is being increasingly blamed for the onset of other health conditions, like obesity, heart disease, and a host of digestive problems — including the dramatic rise in celiac-like disorders.

So what's going on? And why is everybody suddenly blaming wheat?

The answer, it appears, has to do with a whole lot of nastiness that's present in grain-based foods. Wheat raises blood sugar levels, causes immunoreactive problems, inhibits the absorption of important minerals, and aggravates our intestines.

And much of this may stem from the fact that wheat simply ain't what it used to be.

Hybridized wheat

Indeed, today's wheat is a far cry from what it was 50 years ago.

Back in the 1950s, scientists began cross-breeding wheat to make it hardier, shorter, and better-growing. This work, which was the basis for the Green Revolution — and one that won U.S. plant scientist Norman Borlaug the Nobel Prize — introduced some compounds to wheat that aren't entirely human friendly.

As cardiologist Dr. William Davis noted in his book, Wheat Belly: Lose the Wheat, Lose the Weight and Find Your Path Back to Health, today's hybridized wheat contains sodium azide, a known toxin. It also goes through a gamma irradiation process during manufacturing.

But as Davis also points out, today's hybridized wheat contains novel proteins that aren't typically found in either the parent or the plant — some of which are difficult for us to properly digest. Consequently, some scientists now suspect that the gluten and other compounds found in today's modern wheat is what's responsible for the rising prevalence of celiac disease, "gluten sensitivity," and other problems.

Gluten and Gliadin

No doubt, gluten is a growing concern — and it's starting to have a serious impact on our health, and as a result, our dietary choices.

Gluten is a protein composite of gliadin and glutenin that appears in wheat as well as other grains like rye, barley, and spelt. It's also what gives certain foods that wonderful, chewy texture. Gluten also helps dough to rise and keep its shape.

The problem, however, is in how it's metabolized. According to Alessio Fasano, the Medical Director for The University of Maryland's Center for Celiac Research, no one can properly digest gluten.

"We do not have the enzymes to break it down," he said in a recent interview with TenderFoodie. "It all depends upon how well our intestinal walls close after we ingest it and how our immune system reacts to it." His concern is that the gluten protein, which is abundant in the endosperm of barley, rye, and wheat kernels, is setting off an aberrant immune response.

Specifically, the gliadin and glutenin are acting as immunogenic anti-nutrients. Unlike fruits, which are meant to be eaten, grains have a way of fighting back. They create an immunogenic response which increases intestinal permeability, thus triggering systemic inflammation by the immune system — what can lead to any number of autoimmune diseases, including celiac, rheumatoid arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, and so on. And this holds true for people who don't have celiac disease.

Davis also believes that gliadin degrades to a morphine-like compound after eating, what creates an appetite for more wheat; his claim, therefore, is that wheat actually has an addictive quality to it.

Gliadin, what scientists call the "toxic fraction of gluten," has also been implicated in gut permeability. When someone has an adverse reaction, it's because gliadin cross talks with our cells — what causes confusion and a leak in the small intestines. Fasano explains:

Gliadin is a strange protein that our enzymes can't break down from the amino acids (glutamine and proline) into elements small enough for us to digest. Our enzymes can only break down the gliadin into peptides. Peptides are too large to be absorbed properly through the small intestine. Our intestinal walls or gates, then, have to separate in order to let the larger peptide through. The immune system sees the peptide as an enemy and begins to attack.

The difference is that in a normal person, the intestinal walls close back up, the small intestine becomes normal again, and the peptides remain in the intestinal tract and are simply excreted before the immune system notices them. In a person who reacts to gluten, the walls stay open as long as you are consuming gluten. How your body reacts (with a gluten sensitivity, wheat allergy or Celiac Disease) depends upon how long the gates stay open, the number of "enemies" let through and the number of soldiers that our immune system sends to defend our bodies. For someone with Celiac Disease, the soldiers get confused and start shooting at the intestinal walls.

The effects of gluten and gliadin clearly vary from person to person. But as a recent study showed, nearly 1.8 million Americans have celiac disease, and another 1.4 million are likely undiagnosed. And surprisingly, another 1.6 million have adopted a gluten-free diet despite having no diagnosis.

In addition, it's estimated that about 18 million Americans have "non-celiac gluten sensitivity," which results in cramps and diarrhea.

High glycemic index

Wheat also raises blood sugar. As Davis notes, the glycemic index of wheat is very high (check out this chart from Harvard to see how various foods rank). It contains amylopectin A, which is more efficiently converted to blood sugar than just about any other carbohydrate, including table sugar.

Consequently, two slices of whole wheat bread increases blood sugar levels higher than a single candy bar. Overdoing the wheat, says Davis, can result in "deep visceral fat."

Wheat can also trigger effects that aren't immediately noticeable. Small low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles form after eating lots of carbohydrates — which are responsible for atherosclerotic plaque, which in turn can trigger heart disease and stroke. And in fact, it has been shown that a wheat-free diet can improve glucose tolerance in individuals with ischaemic heart disease.

Lectins

Lectins, which are a class of molecules, can be found in beans, cereal grains, nuts, and potatoes. And when consumed in excess, or when not cooked properly, they can be harmful.

Now, most lectins are actually quite benign, and in some cases they can even be therapeutic — like fighting some forms of HIV.

But the problem with some lectins, like the ones found in whole grains, is that they bind to our insulin receptors and intestinal lining. This increases inflammation and contributes to autoimmune disease and insulin resistance. It also facilitates the symptoms of metabolic syndrome outside of obesity.

Phytic acid

Phytates are also a problem, a compound that's found within the hulls of nuts, seeds, and grains. Phytic acid cannot be digested by humans. And worse, it binds to metal ions like calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron. In turn, these minerals cannot be properly absorbed after eating.

Consequently, any minerals that might be provided by consuming grain-based foods are not well metabolized. So phytates, combined with gluten, make it difficult for the body to absorb nutrients — which can lead to anemia and osteoporosis.

The Fiber myth

Lastly, a common argument in favor of continuing to eat whole grains is that they provide necessary fiber. This is actually a bit of a myth. As nutrition expert Mark Sisson has noted, "Apart from maintaining social conventions in certain situations and obtaining cheap sugar calories, there is absolutely no reason to eat grains."

And indeed, we can get adequate amounts of insoluble fiber simply by eating plenty of fruits and vegetables.

Images: Top Morgan Lane Photography/Shutterstock. Inset: Zeljko Radojko/Shutterstock, JulijaSapic_Portfolio/Shutterstock, MedicineBulletin.

Archaeologists working at Japan's Kanai Higashiura site have unearthed the remains of a Kofun-period warrior and infant — both of whom were killed in a volcanic eruption. The bodies were covered in a layer of volcanic ash that dates to the early 6th century. The discovery, which is a first of its kind, is particularly remarkable in that the warrior is still wearing his lamellar suit. Though 600 armoured suits have been recovered by archaeologists over the years, none were worn by its owner.

Typically, suits like this one, what are called kozaneko or keiko, are found in tombs placed next to the owner, along with various burial goods. But this one is clearly unique.

Archaeologists believe that the Kanai Higashiura site was buried after the eruption of Harunayama Futatsudake in the early part of the 500's. And in fact, nearby sites Kuroimine and Nakasuji were also hit by the disaster. As a result, the team has started to call these sites the "Pompeii of Japan."

The warrior was found face down in the direction of the volcano. And judging by the position of his legs, it's likely that he fell forward from a kneeling position (talk about cinematic!).

Based on his armour, the warrior would have belonged to an elite group of soldiers. The archaeologists are eager to study the remains in more detail — what will help them reconstruct the local history of the region, along with getting a sense of the level of administrative and military control exerted by the central Yamato authorities.

And indeed, as Ancient Japan reports, the man was likely a guard of an elite resistance:

The fact that he is not wearing a full suit of armour (only protection for his torso and thighs) may imply that he was not on official duty, but rather running for cover with his family. Others, citing the size and nature of tombs bearing similar armour, however, believe the man to have been a local ruler of sorts.

In addition to the two bodies, the archaeologists have found a number of tombs along the Tone River, and bunch of arrowheads.

Source and images: Ancient Japan.

Well, this is a bit disturbing: According to recently declassified documents made available by the U.S. National Security Archive, the United States had a contingency plan in effect where, in the event that the President went missing or was killed during an attack on the country, the military was instructed to launch an automatic and simultaneous "full nuclear response" against both the Soviet Union and China. And it wasn't until 1968 that the government under Lyndon Johnson repealed the directive.

From the NSA's official statement:

Prior to President Johnson's decision, instructions for the emergency use of nuclear weapons that both he and his predecessors had previously approved stipulated a full-scale nuclear counter-attack even if the initial strike were conventional, or the result of an accident, and both Communist giants would be targeted regardless of whether either of them had launched the first strike.

This new information is contained in a record of a meeting between President Johnson and his top national security advisers on 14 October 1968. At the meeting, Johnson's military and civilian aides unanimously recommended that the standing orders, known by the code-name "Furtherance," be revised substantially in order to reduce the inherent risks involved. The changes included providing instructions to commanders to respond to a conventional attack with conventional weapons-an implicit "no-first use" nuclear policy. At the session, speaking of the new approach, National Security Advisor Walt Rostow advised Johnson: "We think it is an essential change. This was dangerous." The entire Joint Chiefs of Staff concurred.

"This was dangerous," they said. Jeez, d'ya think? Man, it's a good thing JFK didn't go philandering off somewhere during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

And this policy would have held true even if an apparent attack was accidental! I guess the thinking must've been, If we're going down, the whole WORLD's going down!

Somebody, get Stanley Kubrick on the phone....

More here.

Image: US Department of Energy.

Fully immersive brain-jacked virtual reality sex may still be a few decades away, but we're inching closer with each passing year. The latest news on this crucial technological front comes in the form of a new collaboration between software developer Sinful Robot, an Irvine-based startup, and Oculus, a hardware company that's developing an advanced virtual reality headset. Combined, the companies are hoping to create the next generation "erotic adventure" video game.

The Oculus Rift VR headset is still under development - but it's being funded by a wildly successful Kickstarter campaign that raised more than $2.4 million. It's scheduled for release in 2014 and will feature full 3D stereoscopic vision and one-on-one, highly accurate 9DOF sensors to accurately track the user's every movement.

Sinful Robot recently announced that it has joined forces with Oculus to develop "the world's first series of fully-immersive erotic encounters," one that will "locate you in the center of the action, the ecstatic epicenter of play." The company's vision is to create extreme immersive and interactive adult VR content.

"I have been waiting for many years for technology to become immersive enough so it [tricks] your brain to accept the virtual reality as reality, but the Rift does really do that," noted company co-founder and creative director Jeroen Van den Bosch on Reddit. "So now we can finally make an erotic adventure game that will actually be exciting!"

To that end, Sinful Robot is looking for help, and their website now lists openings for artists, programmers and character animators. Van den Bosch says prospective employees shouldn't be afraid of "working with spicy content."

H/t Polygon and Mote & Beam. Images via Polygon/Sinful Robots.

As tobacco use continues its inexorable fall from grace, a growing number of people are turning to electronic cigarettes. These nifty electrical inhalers are being seen — and sometimes even marketed — as a "healthier" alternative to smoking tobacco. But are they really a viable alternative to cigarettes, or just a passing fad? What is it like to smoke one? And are they really safer than conventional cigarettes? Here's what you need to know about the e-cigarette.

What is it?

The e-cigarette is meant to mimic the experience of smoking a real one. It looks like a conventional cigarette, and is used in nearly the exact same way — less the fire and smoke. In fact, the experience is so true to traditional smoking that some consider it a viable cessation therapy.

Each e-cig is powered by a small lithium battery that atomizes a propylene glycol/nicotine solution. The substance that's being inhaled even looks like smoke, but it's a vapor similar to fog — albeit a nicotine drenched fog; the amount of nicotine it produces closely approximates what's found in a conventional cigarette.

Starter kits range in price from $40 to $100, and the liquid refills costs about $25 each — what's the equivalent of five packs of cigarettes. Some models even allow for recharging through the USB port of a computer.

Manufacturers say — much to the chagrin of federal regulators — that it's a much cleaner and safer way to inhale nicotine. And unlike cessation patches or gum, the experience is meant to be enjoyed, hence the assortment of flavors that have been made available, like menthol, chocolate and strawberry.

The technology was first conceived by American Herbert Gilbert in 1963, but its modern form took shape back in 2003 owing to the work of China's Hon Lik and his company, Golden Dragon Holding (which has since changed its name to Ruyan, meaning "like smoking"). Though once a lone player, the company now has plenty of rivals — all of whom are vying for space in a potentially lucrative market.

What's the experience like?

To get a better sense of what it's like to smoke an e-cigarette, we spoke to Jayar La Fontaine, a Toronto resident who took up the habit three months ago.

"I'm probably an atypical user of e-cigarettes," he told io9. "I was never a heavy user of tobacco in the first place — but I've always loved the effects of nicotine, what tends to sharpen my thinking." La Fontaine was exposed to e-cigarettes while attending Burning Man in 2011. There, he met a number of users who, like him, were not prior smokers.

For La Fontaine, the initial appeal of e-cigarettes had a lot to do with his asthma. "I would do some casual smoking, but it would make me feel absolutely awful afterward," he said. This was frustrating, as he enjoyed the social aspects — what he calls the "nicotine consumption ritual."

So, with the introduction of the e-cigarette, he felt that he didn't have to worry so much about the harsh toxic chemicals found in tobacco. "It's a safer delivery system for a social drug that I enjoy using every once in awhile," he said.

In terms of the experience itself, La Fontaine describes the effect as a bit muted and not as acute as when smoking traditional cigarettes. He also doesn't get a headrush or dizziness following inhalation.

"But it also doesn't irritate my lungs," he told us, "not the way that regular cigarettes do — though I occasionally feel a tingly sensation."

We asked him if he has any long term concerns about prolonged use. After a slight pause, La Fontaine admitted that he's curious to see what the long term studies will show. "I do have concerns about the overuse of nicotine because it does play with our reward system, he says. "I worry about its addictive qualities — and how it might be affecting my behavior."

And indeed, he's worried that a dependency has already started to take hold.

"I have to admit, even though it's been only three months, when I misplace my e-cigarette I immediately scramble to find out where I left it — and I don't leave home without it. It's something I'm starting to be increasingly aware of."

But is it safe?

As La Fontaine pointed out, there simply isn't enough information yet to prove safety. This has sparked a firestorm of criticism against its use, and even some outright bans.

As it stands, the sale of e-cigarettes is prohibited in Australia, Canada, Israel, and Hong Kong. Specifically, these products cannot be sold in a retail space, nor can they be marketed. And what's being controlled is not the e-cigarette device itself, but the e-liquid cartridges.

Much of the criticism also has to do with claims being made by certain e-cig manufacturers, many of whom claim that it's a safer alternative. While they may eventually be proven right, federal regulators like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration accuse them of making unsubstantiated claims. And indeed, back in 2009 the FDA seized an inbound shipment from China on these very grounds.

Other concerns are that these products are being sold to children, and that there's a heightened chance of nicotine overdose given the ease with which it can be consumed. What's also not known is whether there's a threat to non-users from "second hand vapor."

As for its safety, preliminary tests by the FDA indicated that they do contain some dangerous cancer-causing chemicals, but at lower levels than regular cigarettes.

Actually, as Boston University School of Public Health professor Michael Siegel has pointed out, at much lower levels. Speaking to NPR he said, "It is comparable to what is present in nicotine-replacement products, which are on the market, and, in fact, if you look at the actual levels of the carcinogens in electronic cigarettes, they're about 1,400 times lower than in Marlboros."

Siegel would know. He was involved in a 2010 study published in the Journal of Public Health Policy which indicated that e-cigarettes were in fact safer than cigarettes:

Few, if any, chemicals at levels detected in electronic cigarettes raise serious health concerns. Although the existing research does not warrant a conclusion that electronic cigarettes are safe in absolute terms and further clinical studies are needed to comprehensively assess the safety of electronic cigarettes, a preponderance of the available evidence shows them to be much safer than tobacco cigarettes and comparable in toxicity to conventional nicotine replacement products.

Their survey reviewed 16 laboratory studies that identified the components in electronic cigarette liquid and vapor. The researchers found that carcinogen levels in electronic cigarettes are up to 1,000 times lower than in tobacco cigarettes. Siegel went on to claim that, "The truth is, we know a lot more about what is in electronic cigarettes than regular cigarettes."

At the same time, other studies are showing that e-cigarettes do in fact harm the lungs.

FDA Deputy Commissioner Joshua Sharfstein agrees with the concerns and says consumers should be wary — that it's premature to be jumping on the e-cig bandwagon.

"Some products, which are marketed as exactly the same, have wildly variable amounts of nicotine in them," he told NPR. "One of the products has a poison in it — that is diethylene glycol. And what that indicates is that we don't really know much at all about the way these things are produced."

A lesser evil?

Not surprisingly, tobacco companies are having a fit over e-cigarettes — what's a clear and present danger to their business.

"This is exactly what the tobacco companies have been afraid of all these years, an alternative method of delivering nicotine that is actually enjoyable," said David Sweanor when speaking to the LA Times. He's an adjunct law professor at the University of Ottawa who specializes in tobacco issues. "It took the Chinese, who are very entrepreneurial, and not burdened with all kinds of regulation, to take the risk."

All this said, it's a clear case of vapor-inhaler beware. Not only are the long term impacts of e-cigarette use extremely unclear, it's obvious that nicotine addiction is a necessary part of the equation. As La Fontaine admitted, while he does enjoy the benefits of nicotine, it's a potential problem, one that may already be impacting on his behavior.

Until more is known, it's probably best to exercise caution.

Images: DeZet/Shutterstock.com, jocic/shutterstock, Miriam Doerr/shutterstock.

Two days ago, North Korea finally lobbed a weather satellite into orbit, officially marking their entry into space. And as if to say, "About freakin TIME," a photograph has emerged showing Kim Jong-un enjoying a post-launch cigarette moments after the rocket was launched.

Other pictures show Kim wishing his generals good luck just prior to the momentous event, and another showing him giving the order to launch the rocket.

The outcast nation says it's their right to enter into the now-expired space race despite warnings from the United Nations that it has violated a ban on the development of missile related technology.

Japan and South Korea are concerned that the space program is a front for the development of a nuclear warhead. The United States and Russia have also expressed their concerns.

The successful launch, the first since last April when a rocket disintegrated soon after take off, is being celebrated by millions across the country. Today, to commemorate the achievement, over 150,000 North Koreans gathered in the bitter cold to watch parades and hear speeches.

The Telegraph reports:

Tens of thousands of North Koreans who packed snowy Kim Il-sung Square clenched their fists in a unified show of resolve as a military band tooted horns and pounded on drums.

Huge red banners positioned in the square called on North Koreans to defend Kim Jong-un with their lives. They also paid homage to his father, Kim Jong-il, and his grandfather, North Korean founder Kim Il-sung.

Pyongyang says the rocket put a crop and weather monitoring satellite into orbit. Much of the rest of the world sees it as a thinly disguised test of banned long-range missile technology.

North Korea said that the satellite was a gift to Kim's late father, Kim Jong-il. The weather satellite is called Kwangmyongsong, or "Lode Star" — the nickname given to the elder Kim at birth.

Images: Telegraph.

The Chinese government has approved the final design for a massive planned city scheduled for construction along the rim of a 3.85 kilometer (2.4 mile) lake. Upon completion, Meixi Lake City will provide home to over 180,000 inhabitants and occupy a space that's 120 million square feet in size. The design, which was developed by international architecture firm Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates (KPF), will provide residents with neighborhoods for living, recreation, working, culture, and entertainment.

According to KPF, their design for the Meixi Lake master plan "seeks to establish a paradigm of man living in balance with nature."

They write: "A densely concentrated urban plan, packed with a full variety of functions and building types, is integrated with mountains, lakes, parks and canals, resulting in an environment which promotes both health and prosperity."

"As a new center within the larger metropolitan area of Changsha, Meixi proposes to offer a new model for the future of the Chinese city."

"Advanced environmental engineering, pedestrian planning, cluster zoning, and garden integration, are all made part of a holistic strategy of design in this healthy city."

Of course, we'd be remiss not to mention that Brasilia, the capital city of Brazil, was also a planned city.

All images via KPF. H/t Architecture Daily.

On December 12, the three-mile-long (4.8 km) asteroid Toutatis came within 4.3 million miles (6.9 million km) of Earth — which is about 18 lunar distances. During the flyby, NASA used its 230-foot-wide (70-meter) Deep Space Network antenna at Goldstone, California, to generate a series of radar data images — which has revealed a slowly spinning and oddly shaped asteroid in fairly spooky detail.

The resolution of the image is at 12 feet (3.75 meters) per pixel, and the video is only 64 frames in length — but it shows an asteroid that's elongated and irregularly shaped. Ridges can be clearly seen, and possibly some craters. The astronomers also noticed some bright glints — what might be surface boulders.

The video also shows that Toutatis is spinning quite slowly. It rotates along its long axis every 5.4 days, and the orientation of its rotational axis (precession) changes every 7.4 days; NASA describes it as a wobbly football that has been thrown very poorly.

And as for Toutatis posing a threat to Earth, it's not. The asteroid won't visit us again until 2069 when it will come within 7.7 lunar distances (1.8 million miles or 3 million km). Models indicate that there is a zero chance that it will hit the Earth within the next four centuries — which is the longest interval that estimates can be made.

Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech.

Our heartbeats are triggered by a steady stream of electrical signals, which cause our heart muscles to contract with a regular rhythm. For some people, however, the ‘pacemaker cells' responsible for generating these pulses can fail, resulting in an erratic heartbeat. Normally, this problem is addressed by surgery and the insertion of an electric pacemaker device. But as a recent breakthrough at Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute now shows, it may be possible to convert ordinary heart cells into genuine pacemaker cells — and it can be done with a known gene and a modified virus.

There are fewer than 10,000 pacemaker cells in the heart (out of billions of other heart cells) — an astoundingly small number considering how important they are to critical biological function.

Worse, as age and disease takes its toll on the heart, these cells — also referred to as SAN cells (as they are clustered in the sinoatrial node (SAN) of the heart's right upper chamber) — start to degrade, which can result in a cardiac arrest.

Pacemakers certainly provide a viable solution to the problem, but they're clunky, they break easily, they often lead to infections, and they're limited by their finite battery life.

But this new idea appears to offer a much more elegant solution.

Researchers Nidhi Kapoor, Hee Cheol Cho, and their colleagues injected a genetically-modified virus carrying the crucial Tbx18 gene into guinea pigs. This caused ordinary heart cells to transform into the SAN cells; once infected, the heart cells became smaller, thin, and tapered, thus acquiring the exact characteristics of the pacemaker cells.

Tbx18 is the gene that's responsible for pacemaker cell development during the embryonic stage of development. But in this context, the gene directly reprogrammed the pre-existing heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) to the SAN cells.

Of the seven guinea pigs treated, five eventually developed heartbeats that were being driven by their new biologically-endowed pacemaker.

Biological pacemakers have been created before, but this is the first time that a single gene was shown to directly convert the heart muscle cells to pacemaker cells. And in fact, the new cells — redubbed iSAN cells (induced SAN cells) — were indistinguishable from native pacemaker cells. Previous attempts resulted in cells that were not true pacemaker cells.

Moreover, by avoiding the use of embryonic stem cells to derive pacemaker cells, the researchers have reduced the risk of cancerous cells emerging.

Once safety and efficacy can be proven in humans, the therapy will likely involve a direct injection of the virus into the patient's heart, or through the creation of pacemaker cells in the lab for eventual transplantation.

Read the entire study online at Nature Biotechnology.

Top image: CLIPAREA l Custom media/shutterstock. Other image: Cedars-Sinai.

Remember all those weird and seemingly inexplicable robot sightings we reported on last month? As suspected, it was all part of an elaborate viral marketing campaign — we just weren't sure who was behind it. As it turns out, it was General Electric, who has now released a television commercial in support of this "Brilliant Machines" campaign. And wow, does it ever feature an assortment of popular robots — including a cameo from ST:TNG's Commander Data.

GE describes the campaign and the "Robots on the Move" commercial:

The robots are coming out of the woodwork to attend a mega-summit at an unknown location. A star-studded group that includes Data (Star Trek: The Next Generation), B-9 (Lost in Space), K.I.T.T. (Knight Rider), and Robby the Robot (Forbidden Planet) has gathered to get their first glimpse of the next generation of artificial intelligence - the "brilliant machines."

The robots want to a firsthand look at the technology that will make machines work better and smarter. Join them to see how the new products from GE are integrating innovative technology with the ability to communicate, making the world work in ways never seen before. Join the revolution.

And as Trek News is reporting, when asked if he received compensation for the commercial, Spiner joked on Twitter that he didn't want to discuss finances with his more than 1.3 million followers.

Uh, thinking that's a 'yes'...

Early last month we told you about the recent effort to decrypt a secret World War II message found on the remains of a military pigeon. Since work started the team has made zero progress and they're completely stumped. But now, the editor of a local history magazine in Ontario is claiming that he's deciphered the message — and that it took him just 17 minutes to do it.

To quickly recap, U.K. resident David Martin discovered the remains of a pigeon while renovating his chimney. Upon closer inspection he noticed that the dead bird had a red capsule attached to its leg, what has now been confirmed as a top secret message that was en route to an unknown location in Britain during World War II. Based on a few clues, some experts suspect that the bird was returning from Normandy soon after the Allied landing — and that it carried some important news.

Historians think it's important because the 27 handwritten blocks of code were sent by not one, but two birds — neither of which made it to their destination.

Now, using World War II logbooks, the GCHQ team at Bletchley Park has been working to crack the code. And therein, argues Peterborough's Gord Young, lies the root of the problem.

Young, who is the editor of a local history group, Lakefield Heritage Research, contends that it's not a WWII code at all — but rather a World War I code. Young happens to be in the possession of a Royal Flying Corp [92 Sqd-Canadian] aerial observers' book he inherited from his uncle, and after some simple cross referencing he was able to decipher the message in a matter of minutes.

Young believes that the message detailed German troop positions in Normandy. So, assuming he's right, the message was pretty damned important.

He also believes that it was written by 27-year-old Sgt William Stott, a Lancashire Fusilier, who had been dropped into Normandy — along with pigeons — to report on German positions. He was killed a few weeks later and is buried in a Normandy war cemetery.

The BBC explains why it's possible that a World War I code could have been used during the Normandy invasion.

The code is simple, relying heavily on acronyms, said Mr Young.

Some 250,000 pigeons were used during the war by all services and each was given an identity number. There are two pigeon identification numbers in the message - NURP.40.TW.194 and NURP.37.OK.76. Mr Young says Sgt Stott would have sent both these birds - with identical messages - at the same time, to make sure the information got through.

"Essentially, Stott was taught by a WWI trainer; a former Artillery observer-spotter. You can deduce this from the spelling of Serjeant which dates deep in Brits military and as late as WWI," he said.

"Seeing that spelling almost automatically tells you that the acronyms are going to be similar to those of WWI.

"You will see the World War I artillery acronyms are shorter, but, that is because, you have to remember, that, the primitive radio-transmitters that sent the Morse code were run by batteries, and, those didn't last much more than a half-hour tops, probably less.

"Thus all World War I codes had to be S-n-S, Short-n-Sweet.

"And, as you can clearly see, Stott got a major report out on a pigeon."

Dude seems to know what he's talking about. And since claiming to have cracked the code, Young has contacted Britain's codebreakers at GCHQ — but they remain skeptical. While very interested in seeing his results, they insist that "without access to the relevant codebooks and details of any additional encryption used, the message will remain impossible to decrypt."

In response, Young told the BBC that it's not complex. "Folks are trying to over-think this matter."

UPDATE:

A reader alerts us to a Telegraph article that has published the (alleged) contents of the message:

Artillery observer at 'K' Sector, Normandy. Requested headquarters supplement report. Panzer attack - blitz. West Artillery Observer Tracking Attack.

Lt Knows extra guns are here. Know where local dispatch station is. Determined where Jerry's headquarters front posts. Right battery headquarters right here.

Found headquarters infantry right here. Final note, confirming, found Jerry's whereabouts. Go over field notes. Counter measures against Panzers not working.

Jerry's right battery central headquarters here. Artillery observer at 'K' sector Normandy. Mortar, infantry attack panzers.

Hit Jerry's Right or Reserve Battery Here. Already know electrical engineers headquarters. Troops, panzers, batteries, engineers, here. Final note known to headquarters."

"Jerry" of course was how the Brits, aka "Tommies", referred to the Germans.

Source and images: BBC.

To commemorate its 110th anniversary, Popular Mechanics has put together an epic list of 110 predictions for the next 110 years. And as editor-in-chief Jim Meigs admits, making predictions is not easy — so to that end, the PM editorial team consulted with over 20 different experts (including our own Annalee Newitz) from diverse backgrounds. Here's a sampling of some of our favorites.

Top image courtesy Dylan Cole.

2012 to 2022

Drones will protect endangered species. Guarding at-risk animals from poachers with foot patrols is expensive and dangerous. This summer rangers in Nepal's Chitwan National Park previewed a savvy solution: Hand-launched drones armed with cameras and GPS provided aerial surveillance of threatened Indian rhinos.

Digital "ants" will protect the U.S. power grid from cyber attacks. Programmed to wander networks in search of threats, the high-tech sleuths in this software, developed by Wake Forest University security expert Errin Fulp, leave behind a digital trail modeled after the scent streams of their real-life cousins. When a digital ant designed to perform a task spots a problem, others rush to the location to do their own analysis. If operators see a swarm, they know there's trouble.

Vegetarians and carnivores will dine together on synthetic meats. We're not talking about tofu. We're talking about nutritious, low-cost substitutes that look and taste just like the real thing. Twitter co-founder Biz Stone has already invested in Beyond Meat, which makes plant-based chicken strips so convincing they almost fooled New York Times food writer Mark Bittman.

Bridges will repair themselves with self-healing concrete. Invented by University of Michigan engineer Victor Li, the new composite is laced with microfibers that bend without breaking. Hairline fractures mend themselves within days when calcium ions in the mix react with rainwater and carbon dioxide to create a calcium carbonate patch.

2023 to 2062

Contact lenses will grant us Terminator vision. When miniaturization reaches its full potential, achieving superhuman eyesight will be as simple as placing a soft lens on your eye. Early prototypes feature wirelessly powered LEDs. But circuits and antennas can also be grafted onto flexible polymer, enabling zooming, night vision, and visible data fields.

We will find life beyond Earth. There's a horse race going on right now, and one of those horses is going to cross the finish line in the next two decades. - Seth Shostak, senior astronomer, SETI

Supercomputers will be the size of sugar cubes. The trick is to redesign the computer chip. Instead of the standard side-by-side model in use today, IBM researchers believe they can stack and link tomorrow's chips via droplets of nanoparticle-infused liquid. This would eliminate wires and draw away heat. What it won't do is help you remember where you left your tiny computer before you went to bed.

Scientists will discover direct evidence of dark matter. It may account for 23 percent of the mass in the universe, yet we haven't confirmed that dark matter exists. Why? "It's like a hidden magnet," says Dr. Fred Calef of the Mars Science Laboratory. "You can see what it pulls but can't see the source." Theoretical physicist Michio Kaku believes the proof we seek could arrive within 15 years, helping us to unlock the origins of our universe, and maybe even open the door to another one.

Navy SEALs will be able to hold their breath for 4 hours. Advances in nanotechnology will help us overcome not only illness but also the limits of being human. For example, robotic red blood cells called respirocytes could each hold 200 times the oxygen of their natural counterparts, enabling a man on a mission to, say, hide out underwater for half a day without a scuba tank.

2063 to 2122

We're all gonna die. - MythBusters host Jamie Hyneman

An ion engine will reach the stars. If you're thinking of making the trip to Alpha Centauri, pack plenty of snacks. At 25.8 trillion miles, the voyage requires more than four years of travel at light speed, and you won't be going nearly that fast. To complete the journey, you'll have to rely on a scaled-up version of the engine on the Deep Space 1 probe, launched in 1998. Instead of liquid or solid fuel, the craft was propelled by ions of xenon gas accelerated by an electric field.

Scientists will map the quadrillion connections between the brain's neurons. Quadrillion sounds like a made-up number, but we assure you it's real. Those connections hold the answers to questions about mental illness, learning, and the whole nature versus nurture issue. If every one of them were a penny, you could stack them and build a tower 963 million miles high. It would stretch past Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn and stop roughly halfway to Uranus.

There's lots more at Popular Mechanics, so check it out.

Meet Nicky, an impossibly cute blind baby rhino that is currently under the care of Mike Watson and his team of conservationists at Lewa Wildlife Conservancy in Kenya. Nicky has been living with them since he was one month old, after the conservationists noticed him in the wild getting all confused and aimlessly fumbling around. Concerned that he wouldn't survive, they took Nicky from his mother and are now arranging to bring in a specialist to perform cataract surgery — would could restore sight to the 265-pound (120 kg) black rhino.

Nicky spends his days romping around the Conservancy, often playing with his best friend, a yellow Labrador. The rhino likes to be tucked tightly in his blanket at bedtime, has a thing for afternoon naps, and loves the mud bath (though he absolutely hates it when it rains). He can often be seen running around and bumping into things.

Writing in National Geographic, Marcus and Kate Westberg had a chance to talk to Lewa's CEO, Mike Watson, about Nicky:

What exactly is wrong with Nicky? Can you tell us something about his prospects for surgery – what can be done, and when will it be done – and what his future might look like? How long will he stay at the boma?

Nicky's eye condition is caused by cataracts. This is a congenital condition that can likely be repaired through surgery. We're hoping to arrange for a specialist veterinary surgical team to treat Nicky in the early spring of this year. If the surgery is successful, the transition from blindness to sight will likely be tough on him, but in the long run it will drastically improve his quality of life.

Because Nicky has spent his early years both blind and raised by humans, it's unlikely that he will ever live a completely normal wild rhino life. However, it's our goal to make sure that he is as happy and healthy as possible. Also, because of Nicky's good temperament and comfort around humans, we suspect that he will make a wonderful ambassador for his species; allowing people to have an opportunity to interact with a black rhino and feel a connection to these creatures. At the end of the day, the demand for illegal rhino horn will stop when compassion for the animals overcomes the international appetite for wildlife products.

Can you tell us about Nicky's ‘minders'? Do they try to treat Nicky in any particular way?

Nicky has two primary minders, both of whom are gentle and patient people. They have an in-depth understanding of the species and Nicky's day-to-day needs. Nicky is highly dependent on them, just as he would be on his mother in the wild. He is never alone and always has one minder with him to make sure he stays safe and happy.

How is Nicky's biological mother doing? Was it traumatic for her to lose her calf?

Nicky's mother was obviously upset when he was taken away. She stayed in the same area looking for him for a couple of days, then moved on. Lewa's rangers have been keeping a watchful eye on her and suspect that she may already be pregnant with another calf.

Is there anything that Nicky particularly likes or dislikes?

As I mentioned above, Nicky loves to play in the mud and loves meal time. He doesn't have many dislikes, except for the rain. He really hates to go out in the rain and will do just about anything to avoid it.

Read more at NatGeo, including the efforts of the conservationists to protect this endangered species.

All images via National Geographic.

Archaeologists digging in a 1,000-year-old pre-Hispanic cemetery in Mexico's South Sonora have uncovered a series of skeletons featuring signs of cranial deformation. The practice, which is well documented among Mesoamerican peoples, has never been seen this far north before — a strong indication that their cultural influence was far more prominent than previously assumed.

The ancient burial ground, which is being excavated by Garcia Moreno on behalf of Arizona State University and the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), consists of 25 individuals, 13 of which exhibit intentional cranial deformations.

Also called head binding or head flattening, the practice was likely done to signify group affiliation or as a way to demonstrate social status. It may have also been seen as something aesthetically pleasing.

Many cultures have practiced head binding throughout history, even possibly the Neanderthals, and was typically carried out on infants (as their skulls could be easily moulded). To create the effect, wooden boards were applied to the skull with pressure, typically starting at the age of about one month, and then for the next six months.

But as this new discovery has revealed, some cranial deformations did not go so well. Past Horizons explains:

Of the skeletal remains of 25 individuals recovered, 17 are between 5 months and 16 years and 8 are adults. The researcher noted that the number of infants and pre-pubescents identified in the cemetery may be an indicator of poor practice in regards to cranial deformation and death likely was caused by excessive force while squeezing the skull. This she said, is derived from studies conducted on the remains and the results did not show any apparent diseases that could have caused death.

In addition to the discovery of head binding, some individuals exhibited dental mutilation — a cultural practice that's also common to pre-Hispanic groups in southern Sinaloa and northern Nayarit. Like the cranial deformations, archaeologists are seeing this for the first time in Sonora.

The skeletons also wore ornaments such as bangles, nose rings, earrings, and pendants made from shells found in the Gulf of California. One burial contained a turtle shell that was carefully placed over the abdomen.

According to archaeologist Cristina Garcia Moreno, director of the research project, "This unique find shows a mix of traditions from different groups of northern Mexico. The use of ornaments made from sea shells from the Gulf of California had never been found before in Sonoran territory and this discovery extends the limit of influence of Mesoamerican peoples farther north than has been previously recorded."

Read more about this remarkable discovery at Past Horizons.

Images: INAH and Virtual Museum.

Canadian astronomer Philip Gregory has confirmed that there are three habitable zone planets orbiting the red dwarf star Gliese 667C. The star, which is part of a trinary star system, is only 22 light-years away and it features a planet that's only twice the mass of Earth — making it the lowest mass planet found in a habitable zone thus far.

Top image: Artist's impression of a sunset from the super-Earth Gliese 667Cc courtesy ESO/L. Calçada. The large sun is the red dwarf, 667C.

New results with old data

Astronomers have known about the Gliese 667 system for some time — including the fact that it features some interesting exoplanets. But now, armed with new telescopic techniques, scientists have been able to study the triple star system in much greater detail.

Specifically, Gregory re-analyzed data acquired by the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, HARPS, which is part of the European Southern Observatory's 3.6 metre telescope in Chile. But this time he performed a Bayesian analysis based on a fusion Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm — a system that allowed him to sample probability distributions.

Looking at the new results, he confirmed the presence of at least six planets, including the three potentially habitable ones.

The triple star system

Gliese 667 consists of three stars: two K dwarfs which orbit each other quite closely (they're very similar our own sun), and a low mass M dwarf, what's more commonly referred to as a red dwarf.

It's this red dwarf, 667C, that's causing all the excitement. Even though it's part of the triple system, it's at a fair distance from the K dwarfs — about 200 AU (Earth-distances). And while it's only one-third the size of our own sun and is only 1% as bright, it hosts at least six planets — three of which sit comfortably within its habitable zone (HZ).

Gregory, who works out of the University of British Columbia's Physics and Astronomy Department, was able to confirm that the three planets spin around the red dwarf in 28, 31, and 39 days respectively. This indicates, quite obviously, that the planets are very close to the dwarf. But given its extremely low luminosity, the HZ range is much closer for an M dwarf than for a sun like ours.

Based on previous studies, the planets are likely super-Earths. But as Gregory's work now suggests, they are all capable of fostering large amounts of liquid water and complex and stable atmospheres (including crucial CO2 and O2 cycles).

Interestingly, there is a fourth planet worth discussing, the 91.3 day 66Cf. It lies just teasingly outside the edge of the HZ, but its eccentric orbit means that it spends the majority of its time outside the so-called Goldilocks Zone — that area of the solar system that's just right for life to emerge and flourish.

But it's the 39-day planet that has caught Gregory's attention. It's a potential super-Earth, like most terrestrial exoplanets that have been discovered so far — but it is now the tiniest of the super-Earths ever discovered, at roughly twice our planet's mass. This could bode well for its potential habitability.

You can read the entire paper online at the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: "Evidence for Multiple Planets in the Habitable Zone of Gliese 667C: A Bayesian Re-analysis of the HARPS data."

UPDATE: There are some questions about the scientific validity of this paper, and we are awaiting an update from the authors.

Other sources and h/t: MIT Technology Review.

Most everyone agrees that humanity needs to get rid of its nuclear weapons. It's only through complete relinquishment that we can eliminate the threat of deliberate or accidental nuclear war and the ongoing problem of proliferation. But at the same time, a strong case can be made that these apocalyptic weapons have eliminated the possibility of global-scale conventional warfare — what has arguably resulted in the long-standing peace between all the great powers since the end of the Second World War. The elimination of these weapons, therefore, could actually result in a complete disaster.

The top image is from the nuclear test Operation Upshot-Knothole, carried out by the United States in April of 1953.

Indeed, the ongoing presence of nuclear weapons is the single greatest threat to the survival of humanity.

To put the problem into perspective, there are currently 26,000 nuclear warheads ready to go — 96% of which are controlled by the United States and Russia. These two countries alone could unleash the power of 70,000 Hiroshimas in a matter of minutes. In the event of an all-out nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia, it is estimated that as many as 230 million Americans and 56 million Russians would be killed by the initial blasts. The longer term impacts are incalculable, but suffice it to say human civilization would be hard pressed to survive.

Given the end of the Cold War and the establishment of the START Agreements, the idea of a deliberate nuclear war seems almost anachronistic. But the potential nightmare of an accidental nuclear exchange is all too real. We have already come very close on several occasions, including the harrowing Stanislav Petrov incident in 1983. We are living on borrowed time.

The assertion, therefore, that we need to completely rid ourselves of nuclear weapons appears more than reasonable; our very survival may depend on it. In fact, there are a number of initiatives currently underway that are working to see this vision come into reality. And early in his presidency, Barack Obama himself urged for the complete elimination of nuclear weapons.

But before we head down the path to disarmament, we need to consider the consequences. Getting rid of nuclear weapons is a more difficult and precarious proposition than it may appear. It's important, therefore, to look at the potential risks and consequences.

There are a number of reasons for concern. A world without nukes could be far more unstable and prone to both smaller and global-scale conventional wars. And somewhat counter-intuitively, the process of relinquishment itself could increase the chance that nuclear weapons will be used. Moreover, we have to acknowledge the fact that, even in a world free of nuclear weapons, we will never completely escape the threat of their return.

The Bomb and the end of global-scale wars

The first and (hopefully) final use of nuclear weapons during wartime marked a seminal turning point in human conflict. The development of The Bomb and its presence as an ultimate deterrent has arguably preempted the advent of global-scale wars. It is an undeniable fact that an all-out war has not occurred since the end of World War II, and it is very likely that the threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD) has had a lot to do with it.

The Cold War is an excellent case in point. Its very nature as a "war" without direct conflict points to the acknowledgment that it would have been ludicrous to engage in a suicidal nuclear exchange. Instead, the Cold War turned into an ideological battle largely limited to foreign skirmishes, political posturing, and espionage. Nuclear weapons had the seemingly paradoxical effect of forcing the United States and the Soviet Union into an uneasy peace. The same can be said today for India and Pakistan — two rival and nuclear-capable nations mired in a cold war of their own.

It needs to be said, therefore, that the absence of nuclear weapons would dramatically increase the likelihood of conventional wars re-emerging as military possibilities. And given the catastrophic power of today's weapons, including the introduction of robotics, weaponized nanotechnology, and AI on the battlefield, the results could be devastating. As we recently argued, a World War III fought with conventional weapons represents and existential threat.

This forces us to ask some difficult questions: Is nuclear disarmament worth it if the probability of conventional war becomes ten times greater? What about a hundred times greater?

And given that nuclear weapons are more of a deterrent than tactical weapons, can such a calculation even be made? If nuclear disarmament spawns x conventional wars with y casualties, how could we measure those catastrophic losses against a nuclear war that's not really supposed to happen in the first place? The value of nuclear weapons is not that they should be used, but that they should never be used.

Upsetting the geopolitical balance

Today's global geopolitical structure has largely converged around the realities and constraints posed by the presence of apocalyptic weapons and by the nations who control them. Tension exists between the United States and Russia, but there are limits to how far each nation is willing to provoke the other. The same can be said for the United States' relationship with China. And as already noted, nuclear weapons may be forcing the peace between India and Pakistan (it's worth noting that conventional war between two nuclear-capable nations is akin to suicide; nuclear weapons would be used the moment one side senses defeat).

But should nuclear weapons suddenly disappear, the current geopolitical arrangement would be turned on its head. Despite its rhetoric, the United States is not a hegemonic power. We live in a de facto multi-polar geopolitical environment. Take away nuclear weapons and we get a global picture that looks startlingly familiar to pre-World War I Europe.

Additionally, the elimination of nuclear weapons could act as a destabilizing force, giving some up-and-coming nation-states the idea that they could become world players. Despite United Nations sanctions against invasion, some leaders could become bolder (and even desperate) and lose their inhibitions about claiming foreign territory; nations may start to take more calculated and provocative risks — even against those nations who used to be nuclear powers.

There are also so-called "rogue states" to consider. It's no secret that the United States and Israel are contemplating strategic strikes against Iran as it works to develop its own nuclear weapons and threaten the region. It will only be a matter of time before Iran and North Korea develop intercontinental ballistic capability — the ramifications of which are difficult to assess. Perhaps counterintuitively, it could actual work to stabilize both regions.

But that assumes the presence of self-preserving rational state actors — what can never be guaranteed.

That said, the composition of a nuclear-free world would be far more unstable and unpredictable than a world with nukes. Relinquishment could introduce us to an undesirable world in which new stresses and conflicts rival those posed by the threat of nuclear weapons.

Nukes could still get in the wrong hands

It should be noted, however, that nuclear weapons do nothing to mitigate the threat of terrorism. MAD becomes a rather soft deterrent when "political rationality" comes into question; rationality can be a very subjective thing, as is the sense of self-preservation, particularly when nihilism and metaphysical beliefs come into play (i.e. religious fanaticism).

Indeed, even in a world where nuclear weapons are eliminated it would not be outlandish to suggest that fringe groups, and even rogue nations, would still work to obtain the devices. The reasons for doing so are obvious — a grim turn of events that would enable them to take the rest of the world hostage.

Consequently, we can never be sure that at some point down the line, when push comes to shove for some countries or terrorist groups, they'll independently work to develop their own nuclear weapons.

Dangers of the disarmament process

Should the nuclear capable nations of the world disarm, the process itself could lead to a number of problems. Even nuclear war.

During disarmament, for example, it's conceivable that nations would become distrustful of the others — even to the point of complete paranoia and all-out belligerence. Countries would have to work particularly hard to show concrete evidence that they are in fact disarming. Any evidence to the contrary could severely escalate tensions and thwart the process.

Some strategic thinkers have even surmised that there might be more incentive for a first strike with small numbers of nuclear weapons on both sides, where the attacking nations could hope to survive the conflict. As a result, it's suspected that the final stage of disarmament, when all sides are dismantling the last of their weapons, will be an exceptionally dangerous time. Consequently, disarmament, quite paradoxically, may increase the probability of deliberate nuclear war.

And in addition, concealing a few nukes at this stage could give one nation an enormous military advantage over those nations who have been completely de-nuclearized. This is not as ridiculous as it might seem; it would be all too easy and advantageous for a nation to conceal a secret stockpile and attempt to gain political and military advantages by nuclear blackmail or attack.

A dramatic reduction in stockpiles

None of this should be construed as opposition to nuclear disarmament. Instead, these arguments point to the potential challenges that such a process would bring. If we're going to do this we need to do a proper risk assessment and adjust our disarmament strategies accordingly (assuming that's even possible). We may be able to get rid of nuclear weapons — it's just that our nuclear exit strategy will have to include some provisions to alleviate the potential problems already described.

And at the very least we need to dramatically reduce the number of live warheads. Having 26,000 active weapons and a stockpile the size of Mount Everest is sheer lunacy. There's no other word for it. It's a situation begging for disaster.

All this said, we must also admit that we have permanently lost our innocence. We will have to live with the nuclear threat in perpetuity — even if these weapons cease to physically exist. There will never be a complete guarantee that countries have completely disarmed themselves and that re-armament won't ever happen again in the future.

But thankfully, a permanent guarantee of disarmament is not required for this process. The longer we go without nuclear weapons, the better.

Source not cited within the article: Global Catastrophic Risks.

_{This article originally appeared at Sentient Developments.}

Other images: Shawn Talbot/shutterstock, the U.S. Army Photographic Signal Corps, Wall Street Journal, Urbanhostingmedia.